Electricity sector in New Zealand
 |
|
| Data | |
|---|---|
| Electricity coverage | 99% |
| Installed capacity (2009) | 9,486 MW |
| Share of fossil energy | 25.78%[1] |
| Share of renewable energy | 74.22%[1] |
| GHG emissions from electricity generation (2010) | 5957.5 kilotonnes CO2-e[1] |
| Average electricity use (2010) | 9.88 MWh per capita[1][2] |
| Distribution losses (2009) | 3135 GWh |
| Residential consumption (% of total) |
34.3% |
| Industrial consumption (% of total) |
40.6% |
| Commercial and public consumption (% of total) |
25.0% |
| Average residential tariff (US$/kW·h, 2011) |
0.1915 (NZ$ 0.2530)[3] |
| Services | |
| Share of private sector in generation | 35% |
| Share of private sector in transmission | 0% |
| Share of private sector in distribution | 100% |
| Competitive supply to large users | Yes |
| Competitive supply to residential users | Yes |
| Institutions | |
| Responsibility for transmission | Transpower |
| Responsibility for regulation | New Zealand Electricity Authority |
| Electricity Sector Law | Electricity Act 1992 Electricity Industry Act 2010 |
The electricity sector in New Zealand uses mainly renewable energy sources such as hydropower, geothermal power and increasingly wind energy. The 70% share of renewable energy sources makes New Zealand one of the lowest carbon dioxide emitting countries in terms of electricity generation. Electricity demand is growing by an average of 2.1% per year since 1974 and 0.9% from 2005 to 2010.[4] Despite being slightly above global average in the list of countries by energy intensity, New Zealand has been called one of the least energy efficient countries in the OECD when comparing economic output against electricity consumption.[5]
New Zealand suffers from a geographical imbalance between electricity production and consumption. The most substantial electricity generation (both existing and as remaining potential) is located on the South Island and to a lesser degree in the central North Island, while the main demand (which is continuing to grow) is in the northern North Island, particularly the Auckland Region. This requires electricity to be transmitted north through a power grid which is reaching its capacity more often. While initiatives are underway to build new transmission power lines, most notably from the South Waikato to the Auckland Region, there is substantial local protest against these initiatives.[6]
Regulation of the electricity industry is the responsibility of the Electricity Authority (formerly the Electricity Commission). Control is also exerted by the Minister of Energy in the New Zealand Cabinet, though the Minister for State-Owned Enterprises and the Minister for Climate Change also have some powers by virtue of their positions and policy influence in the government.
Contents |
[edit] History
Initial use of electricity in New Zealand was tied to mining, with Reefton on the West Coast becoming the first electrified city in 1888 after the Reefton Power Station was commissioned, while the first sizable power station was built for the Waihi gold mines at Horahora on the Waikato River. This set a precedent which was to dominate New Zealand's electricity generation, with hydropower becoming and remaining the dominant source. In 1930, the percentage was at 92%.[7]
While industrial use quickly took off, it was only government programmes in the first two thirds of the 20th century that caused private demand to climb strongly as well. Especially the rural areas were beneficiaries of subsidies for electrical grid systems, where supply literally was provided to create demand, with an intention to modernise the countryside. The results were notable - in the 1920s, electricity use increased at a rate of 22% per year. In fact, the 'load building' programmes were so successful that shortages started to occur from 1936 on, though a large number of new power stations built in the 1950s enabled supply to catch up again.[7]
After the massive construction programmes had created a substantial supply of energy not dependent on international fossil fuel prices, New Zealand became less frugal with its energy use. While in 1978, its energy consumption (as expressed against economic output) hovered around the average of all OECD countries, during the 1980s New Zealand dropped far behind, increasing its energy use per economic unit by over 25%, while other nations slowly reduced their energy usage levels. Based on this economic comparison, in 1991 it was the second-least energy-efficient country out of 41 OECD countries.[5]
[edit] Generation
A file depicting the locations of power station in the Keyhole Markup Language style, zipped, that is interpreted by the Google Earth system can be obtained from the Dropbox system via http://dl.dropbox.com/u/51926503/PowerStations.kmz (source: the centralised dataset DVD offered by the N.Z. Electricity Commission/ Electricity authority)
The installed generating capacity of New Zealand (all sources) as of December 2010 was 9,667 megawatts (MW), composed of 54.3% hydroelectricity, 23.2% natural gas, 7.6% geothermal, 6.4% coal, 5.6% wind, 1.6% oil, and 1.3% other sources (mainly biogas, waste heat and wood) [4]
A total of 43,401 GWh was generated in New Zealand in 2010. Of the electricity generated, it composed of 56.4% hydroelectricity, 21.2% natural gas, 12.8% geothermal, 4.5% coal, 3.7% wind, <0.1% oil, and 1.4% other sources.[4][1]
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[edit] Hydro
Hydroelectric power stations generate the majority of New Zealand's electricity, with 24,470 GWh generated by hydroelectricity in 2010 - equal to 56.0% of New Zealand's electricity generated that year. The total hydroelectricity installed capacity is 5,252 MW.[4] The South Island is heavily reliant on hydroelectricity - 98.7% of its electricity was generated by hydroelectricity in 2009, and the South Island hydro stations generated 65.4% of New Zealand's total hydroelectricity in that year.
There are three major hydroelectric schemes in the South Island: Waitaki, Clutha and Manapouri. Waitaki has three distinct parts - the original Waitaki and Tekapo A powerhouses (1936 and 1951 respectively), the 1960s Lower Waitaki development consisting of Benmore and Aviemore, and the 1970-80's Upper Waitaki development of Tekapo B and Ohau A, B, and C. In total, the nine powerhouses generate approximately 7600 GWh annually, around 18% of New Zealand's electricity generation[8] and more than 30% of all its hydroelectricity. [9] Manapouri Power Station is a single underground power station in Fiordland, and the largest hydroelectric station in the country. It generates 730 MW of electricity and produces 4800 GWh annually, mainly for the Tiwai Point aluminium smelter near Invercargill. Both Waitaki and Manapouri are operated by Meridian Energy. The Clutha River scheme is operated by Contact Energy, and consists of two powerhouses: Clyde Dam (432 MW, commissioned 1992) and Roxburgh Dam (360 MW, commissioned 1962).
The North Island has two major schemes: Tongariro and Waikato. The Tongariro Power Scheme consists of water taken from the catchments of the Whangaehu, Rangitikei, Whanganui and Tongariro Rivers passing through two powerhouses (Tokaanu and Rangipo) before being deposited in Lake Taupo. The scheme is operated by Genesis Energy and has an installed capacity of 360 MW. The Waikato River Scheme, operated by Mighty River Power, consists of nine powerhouses on the river between Lake Taupo and Hamilton, generating 3650 GWh annually.
Other smaller hydroelectricity facilities and schemes are scattered around both islands of mainland New Zealand.
Hydroelectric schemes have largely shaped hinterland New Zealand. Towns including Mangakino, Turangi, Twizel and Otematata originally were founded for workers on the construction of hydroelectric schemes and their families. The hydroelectric reservoirs of Lake Ruataniwha and Lake Karapiro are world-class rowing venues, with the latter having hosted the 1978 and the 2010 World Rowing Championships. Other schemes have shaped political New Zealand. In the 1970s, the original plans to raise Lake Manapouri for the Manapouri station were scrapped after major protests. Later in the 1980s, protests were made against the creation of Lake Dunstan behind the Clyde Dam, which would flood the Cromwell Gorge and part of Cromwell township, destroying many fruit orchards and the main street of Cromwell. However, the project was given the go ahead and Lake Dunstan was filled in 1992-93.
Hydroelectricity generation has remained relatively steady since 1993 - the only major hydroelectricity projects since then was the completion of the second Manapouri tailrace tunnel in 2002, increasing the station from 585 MW to 750 MW. No major new hydroelectric projects have been committed as of December 2010, but there are proposals for further developments on the Waitaki and Clutha Rivers, and on the West Coast of the South Island.
[edit] Geothermal
New Zealand lies on the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate, creating favourable geological conditions for the exploitation of geothermal power. Geothermal fields have been located across New Zealand, but at present, most geothermal power is generated within the Taupo Volcanic Zone - an area in the North Island stretching from Mount Ruapehu in the south to White Island in the north. As at 31 December 2010, the installed capacity of geothermal power was 723 MW, and in 2010, geothermal generated 5,551 GWh of electricity - 13% of the country's electricity generation that year.[4]
Most of New Zealand's geothermal power is generated north of Lake Taupo. Seven stations generate electricity here, including Wairakei Power Station, New Zealand's oldest (1958) and largest (176 MW) geothermal power station, and the world's second large-scale geothermal power facility. Also in this area are Nga Awa Purua, which is home to the world's largest geothermal turbine at 147 MW[10] (although the plant only generates 140 MW); and Ohaaki, which has a 105-metre tall hyperboloid natural draft cooling tower: the only one of its kind in New Zealand. Geothermal electricity is also generated near Kawerau in the eastern Bay of Plenty, and near Kaikohe in Northland.
No new geothermal power stations are under construction as of January 2011. Contact Energy has however called for construction tenders on its 220 MW Te Mihi Power Station to replace the ageing Wairakei Power Station using the same steam field. Another 110 MW of capacity is consented, and another 250 MW is proposed.
Much of New Zealand's geothermal power potential still lies untapped, with the New Zealand Geothermal Association estimating an installation capacity (using only existing technology) of around 3,600 MW.[11]
[edit] Wind
Wind is the newest electricity power source for New Zealand, and the fastest growing. In December 2010, total installed wind capacity was 539 MW, and in 2010, wind generated 1618 GWh of electricity - 3.7% of all electricity generated that year.[4]
Electricity was first generated by wind in New Zealand in 1993, by a 225 kW demonstration turbine in the Wellington suburb of Brooklyn. The first commercial wind farm was established in 1996 - the Hau Nui Wind Farm, 22 km southeast of Martinborough had seven turbines and generated 3.85 MW. The Tararua Wind Farm was first commissioned in 1999 with 32 MW of generating capacity, gradually expanding over the next eight years to 161 MW - the largest wind farm in New Zealand. Other major wind farms include Te Apiti, West Wind and White Hill.
Wind power in New Zealand shares the difficulties typical to other nations (uneven wind strengths, ideal locations often remote from power demand areas). The Tararua Wind Farm averages slightly more than New Zealand's 45% full capacity usage (in other words, wind farms in New Zealand produce more than double their average energy during periods of maximum useful wind strengths).[12] However, the New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority figures indicate that wind power is also expected to operate at maximum capacity for around 4,000 hours a year, much more than for example the approximately 2,000 hours (Germany) to 3,000 hours (Scotland, Wales, Western Ireland) found in European countries.[12]
Wind power is continuing to grow rapidly - as of January 2011, a total of 115 MW capacity is under construction and is expected to commissioned by mid-2011. Another 1109 MW of capacity has been given resource consent, and there is at least another 2500 MW of capacity under proposal or yet to receive consent.[13]
[edit] Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels, specifically coal, oil and gas, produced 11,140 GWh of electricity in 2010 - 26% of all electricity generated. This was split into 9205 GWh by gas, 1933 GWh by coal, and 2 GWh by oil. Total combined installed capacity in 2010 was 2552 MW. The North Island generates nearly all (99.8%) of New Zealand's fossil-fuelled electricity.[4]
Up until the 1950s, fossil-fuelled stations were small scale and usually fuelled by coal or coal by-products, providing electricity to cities yet to be connected to hydro schemes and to provide additional support to such schemes. Large-scale coal-fired generation came in 1958 with the establishment of the 210 MW Meremere Power Station. Oil-fired stations such as Otahuhu A, Marsden A&B, and New Plymouth were commissioned in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The discovery of natural gas off the Taranaki coast, and the oil crises of the 1970s, saw oil-fueled stations converted to gas operation or mothballed, while gas-fired stations proliferated, especially in Taranaki and Auckland, well into the 2000s. Only in recent years has coal made a comeback, as Taranaki gas has slowly depleted.
Today, there are five major fossil-fuelled stations in New Zealand. Smaller gas- and coal-fuelled industrial generators are found across New Zealand and especially in Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, and Taranaki. Genesis Energy's Huntly Power Station in northern Waikato is New Zealand's largest power station - with 1000 MW of coal- and gas-fired generators and 435 MW of gas only generators, it supplies around 17% of the country's electricity.[14] Gas-fired stations exist in Taranaki at Stratford (585 MW), and in southern Auckland at Otahuhu (380 MW) and Southdown (175 MW). Whirinaki is a 155 MW diesel-fired station north of Napier, and is a seasonal station that is only used during dry seasons where there is limited water available for hydroelectricity generation.
Diesel-fuelled generation using internal combustion engines is popular in hinterland New Zealand where the national network doesn't reach, such as on offshore islands, alpine huts, sparsely populated areas and isolated homes and farm sheds. Diesel fuel suitable for generators is readily available across the country at petrol stations - diesel is not taxed at the petrol pump in New Zealand, and instead diesel-powered vehicles pay Road User Charges based on their gross tonnage and distance travelled.
No new fossil-fuelled power stations are committed to construction as of January 2011. However, resource consent has been approved for 880 MW of gas-fired capacity in the Auckland area, near Helensville and at Otahuhu.
[edit] Other sources
[edit] Marine
New Zealand is considered to have abundant marine energy resources, although these are yet to be tapped. The Kaipara Tidal Power Station is being developed in the Kaipara Harbour and marine current projects in Cook Strait are under consideration. The Aotearoa Wave and Tidal Energy Association was established by firms and people interested in promoting New Zealand marine energy.
[edit] Nuclear
Despite popular belief, it is not illegal under New Zealand's nuclear-free legislation to build or operate a nuclear power station – the legislation covers only nuclear-propelled ships, nuclear explosive devices and radioactive waste.[15][16]
The only significant proposal for a nuclear power station in New Zealand was the Oyster Point Power Station, on the Kaipara Harbour near Kaukapkapa north of Auckland. Between 1968 and 1976, there were plans to develop four 250 MW reactors at the site. In 1976, the plans were dropped as the discovery of Maui gas meant there was no immediate need to embark on a nuclear programme. [15] Since 1976, the idea of nuclear power, especially in the Auckland region, has popped up from time to time, but there are no definite plans.
[edit] Transmission
New Zealand's national electricity transmission grid is important to connect its generating facilities to its demand centres, which are often in excess of 150 km (93 mi) in distance from each other. The national grid is owned, operated, and maintained by state-owned enterprise Transpower New Zealand Limited. In total, the national grid contains 11,803 kilometres (7,334 mi) of high-voltage lines and 178 substations.[17] Vector also operates a smaller regional transmission network, interconnecting most of Auckland with Transpower's national network.
The first major transmission lines came about in 1913-14, connecting the Horahora hydro station to Waikino, and Coleridge hydro station with Addington in Christchurch. The interwar years saw the first major construction of a national network of 110 kV connecting towns and cities to hydroelectric schemes. By 1940, the transmission network stretched from Whangarei to Wellington in the North Island, and Christchurch to Greymouth and Invercargill in the South Island. Nelson and Marlborough were the last regions to join the national grid in 1955. The 220 kV network began in the early 1950s, connecting Auckland to Wellington, and Christchurch to Roxburgh. The two islands were joined together by the HVDC Inter-Island link in 1965.
[edit] Existing grid
In each island, 220 kV lines form a backbone to each island's grid and connects together the major cities and power users, and the major power stations. Supplementing the 220 kV grid are 110 kV, 66 kV and 50 kV transmission lines, which connect provincial towns and cities and smaller power stations to each other and to the 220 kV grid. Notable major transmission substations include Otahuhu in Auckland, Haywards in Wellington, and Islington in Christchurch.
The national grid today has ageing infrastructure and increasing demand is placing significant loads on some parts of the network. Transpower is currently investing in upgrading existing lines and substations to ensure supply security. The Auckland and Northland regions are a priority for new investment - Auckland's population is rapidly expanding, and with no major generation north of Auckland, the six major 220 kV circuits and two smaller 110 kV circuits from the south are increasingly being strained to supply the city. This is not helped by the fact all electricity in Auckland currently has to go through a single point in the network - Otahuhu substation, creating limited redundancy in the network.
A major failure occurred at Otahuhu on 12 June 2006, leading to the 2006 Auckland Blackout. It started at 8:30 am local time, with most areas of Auckland regaining power by 2:45 pm local time. It affected some 230,000 customers had an impact on at least 700,000 people in and around the city.
On 11 December 2006, the Electricity Commission (NZ) received an application from Transpower for the establishment of a new 220 kV gas insulated switchgear (GIS) facility adjacent to but geographically separate from the existing outdoor 220kV switchyard at Otahuhu. This project was described as the Otahuhu substation diversity project, and included transferring approximately half of the circuits from the existing switchyard to the new GIS switchyard, to improve network resilience. The project was approved in August 2007.[18]
[edit] HVDC Inter-Island
The HVDC Inter-Island is New Zealand's only high voltage direct current (HVDC) system, and links the North and South Island grids together. The line connects the Benmore Hydroelectric Power Station in southern Canterbury with the Haywards substation in the Hutt Valley via a 610 km long overhead bipolar line with submarine cables across Cook Strait. The HVDC link was originally designed to transfer cheap South Island hydroelectric power northwards to the more populous North Island. The line today is now bidirectional, allowing North Island-generated thermal electricity to flow south during dry periods, but it still has a northern flow bias due to the constraints of the 220kV lines into Wellington.[19]
[edit] Future
Many projects are underway to increase security of supply, mainly to Auckland and Northland, and between the islands.
Committed projects as of December 2010 include:
- An $824m upgrade to the upper North Island grid to increase supply security into Auckland, involving building a new 220kV/400kV transmission line from a new substation at Whakamaru (Whakamaru North) in South Waikato to Brownhill Road near Whitford, Auckland. From Brownhill Road, 220kV underground cables will connect the line to a new Pakuranga substation, before an existing 220kV line links it to Otahuhu substation. Initially operating at 220kV, the line in future will be upgraded to 400kV and 220kV underground cables laid between Brownhill Road and Otahuhu. Construction is expected to be completed in April 2012.[20]
- A $600m upgrade of the HVDC Inter-Island, which involves replacing the ageing mercury arc equipment Pole 1 with a new thyristor valve equipment Pole 3. The project also includes replacing around 100 transmission pylons and around 70 km of conductor wire, and replacing the control systems on the existing Pole 2. It will allow the HVDC link to return to full working order and allow up to 1200MW transfer northbound and up to 670MW southbound. Construction is expected to be completed in April 2012 for 1000MW northbound, and January 2014 for 1200MW northbound. A fourth cable across Cook Strait will allow the link to carry up to 1400MW northbound.[12][21]
- A $521m underground 220kV cable link from Pakuranga to Albany, via the Penrose substation, and new substations at Hobson Street and Wairau Road, crossing the Waitemata Harbour underneath the Auckland Harbour Bridge. This link will increase supply security to central Auckland, the North Shore, and further afield to Northland. Construction is expected to be completed in June 2013.[22]
- A $141m project to replace the existing single-circuit 220kV Wairakei to Whakamaru B line via Poihipi with a new double-circuit 220kV transmission line. The new line will increase transmission capacity out of the area for the large number of proposed geothermal power stations near Wairakei. The line is expected to be commissioned in April 2013.[23]
[edit] Supply issues
For the 2008 winter, the chief executive of Meridian Energy, speaking for the electricity industry, warned in February that safety margins in both the capacity of the supply grid and power generation are very low, and limited cuts in supply may become necessary (such as cutting off hot-water supply systems from the power grid).[24] However, no substantial problems occurred, mainly because the levels of water remaining in the hydropower storage lakes remained sufficient.
[edit] Distribution
Electricity from Transpower's national grid is distributed to local lines companies and large industrial users via 180 grid exit points (GXPs) at 147 locations. Large industrial companies, such as New Zealand Steel and the Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter (220kV with dedicated substation) draw directly from Transpower substations, not the local lines companies' local grids.
Distribution of electricity to local consumers is the responsibility of one of 28 local line companies. Each company supplies electricity to a set geographic area based on the grid exit points they draw from. Notable large lines companies include Vector (Auckland region north of Takanini), Powerco (Tauranga, Eastern Waikato, Taranaki, Wanganui, Manawatu, and Wairarapa), Unison Networks (Rotorua, Taupo, Napier, and Hastings), Wellington Electricity Lines (Wellington urban area), and Orion (Christchurch and Canterbury between the Waimakariri and Rakaia Rivers)
The local line companies draw electricity from the grid exit point at either the standard distribution voltage (i.e. the voltage used to deliver electricity to the street of the consumer) of 11 kV, or take electricity at a higher voltage of 22 kV, 33 kV, 66 kV, or 110 kV for sub-transmission between towns and other communities. Sub-transmission voltages are stepped down to distribution voltage at local substations. Some consumers draw directly from the sub-transmission grid, and smaller power stations usually connect to the sub-transmission grid for distribution and connection to the national grid.
Electricity at 11 kV is distributed to the streets of consumers, and to some large local businesses, such as farms and schools. Local pole-mounted or ground-mounted transformers step-down the electricity from distribution voltage to the New Zealand mains voltage of 230 volts for distribution into local homes and businesses.
A major failure of distribution systems occurred in the 1998 Auckland power crisis - two 40-year old cables connecting Penrose and Auckland's central business district failed in January to February 1998 during unseasonally hot weather, causing strain on the two newer remaining cables which subsequently failed on 20 February 1998 and plunged central Auckland into darkness. The failure cost businesses NZ$300 million, and resulted in central Auckland being without electricity for 66 days until an emergency overhead line could reconnect the city - the longest peacetime blackout in history.[25]
[edit] Isolated areas
New Zealand's national electricity network covers the majority of both the North and South Islands. Waiheke Island, New Zealand's most populous offshore island, is connected to Vector's mainland Auckland sub-transmission network by submarine cables.[26][27] However, many offshore islands and some parts of the South Island are not connected to the national grid and operate independent generation systems, mainly due to the difficulty of building lines from other areas. These places include:
- Great Barrier Island. The largest population in New Zealand without a reticulated electricity supply. Generation is from individual schemes for households or groups of households. A combination of renewable and non-renewable energy.
- Haast. The area around Haast and extending south to Jackson Bay is not connected to the rest of New Zealand. It operates from a hydroelectric scheme on the Turnbull River with diesel backup.
- Milford Sound - electricity is generated via a small hydroelectric scheme operating off Bowen Falls with a diesel backup.
- Deep Cove, Doubtful Sound - The small community at Deep Cove at the head of Doubtful Sound operates off a hydro scheme, although during the construction of the second Manapouri Tailrace Tunnel a high voltage cable was installed connecting this tiny settlement with the Manapouri Power Station.
- Stewart Island / Rakiura. This island's power supply for a population of 300/400 people is entirely diesel generated. Renewable energy sources are limited, but they are being actively investigated in order to increase the sustainability of the island's power supply, and reduce the cost.
- Chatham Islands. All power on Chatham and Pitt Island is currently diesel generated, with fuel imported from New Zealand. Wind turbines are about to be installed on Chatham Island to diversify the supply .
Many other schemes exist on offshore islands that have permanent or temporary habitation, mostly generators or small renewable systems. An example is the ranger / research station on Little Barrier Island, where twenty 175 watt photovoltaic panels provide the mainstay for local needs, with a diesel generator for backup.[28]
[edit] Consumption
In 2009, New Zealand consumed a total of 37,589 GWh of electricity. Industrial consumption made up 35.8 percent of that figure, agricultural consumption made up 4.8 percent, commercial consumption made up 25.0 percent, and residential consumption made up 34.3 percent. There were just over 1.92 million connections to the national electricity network on 31 December 2009, with 86.0 percent being residential connections.
In addition to the urban areas of Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch, which are the main electricity consumers of the country, New Zealand also has another major energy consumer which uses 15% of the national energy production - the Tiwai Point Aluminium Smelter in Southland, which effectively has a dedicated power generator in the Manapouri power station.[29]
[edit] Consumption by sector
| ANZSIC | Category | Total consumption (GWh) | Total connections | Average consumption (MWh per connection) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agriculture | 1,784.3 | 74,305 | 24.01 | |
| A01, A05 | Agriculture and primary sector support services | 1,597.6 | 73,410 | 21.76 |
| A | Other agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting | 186.8 | 896 | 208.44 |
| Industrial | 13,898.9 | 38,423 | 361.74 | |
| B | Mining | 426.5 | 731 | 583.44 |
| C111, C112 | Meat and meat products | 780.6 | 525 | 1,487.28 |
| C113 | Dairy products | 767.9 | 459 | 1,672.20 |
| C114, C12 | Other food products, beverages and tobaccos | 536.4 | 2,379 | 225.48 |
| C14 | Log sawmilling and timber dressing, and other wood products | 1,400.6 | 1,279 | 1,094.93 |
| C15 | Pulp, paper and converted paper products | 1,788.8 | 202 | 8,869.99 |
| C211 | Basic ferrous metal | 1,340.5 | 474 | 2,829.41 |
| C213 | Basic non-ferrous metal | 4,394.4 | 76 | 57,746.65 |
| C | Other manufacturing | 1,925.8 | 13,208 | 145.81 |
| D | Electricity, gas and water supply | 347.6 | 9,830 | 35.36 |
| E | Construction | 189.8 | 9,262 | 20.49 |
| Commercial | 9,227.0 | 155,569 | 59.31 | |
| F-G | Wholesale and retail trade | 2,543.3 | 44,978 | 56.55 |
| H | Accommodation and food services | 1,039.9 | 17,022 | 61.09 |
| I | Transport and storage | 551.9 | 9,126 | 60.48 |
| J | Information media, telecommunications and postal services | 445.2 | 9,355 | 47.59 |
| K-N | Financial, property, hiring, professional and administrative services | 1710.3 | 25,948 | 65.91 |
| O | Public administration and safety | 788.1 | 9,888 | 79.70 |
| P | Education and training | 650.9 | 9,054 | 71.89 |
| Q | Health care and social assistance | 673.3 | 8,868 | 75.93 |
| R-S | Arts, recreational and other services | 731.5 | 21,329 | 34.30 |
| Residential | 12,679.0 | 1,654,483 | 7.66 | |
| Total | 37,589.2 | 1,922,780 | 19.55 | |
[edit] Electricity market
New Zealand's electrical energy generation, previously state-owned as in most countries, was corporatised, deregulated and partly sold off over the last two decades of the twentieth century, following a model typical in the Western world. However, much of the sector remains under government ownership as state-owned enterprises. Detailed information and statistics on the companies are provided in the above article.
All of the governments energy assets originally came under the Public Works Department. From 1946, the management of generation and transmission came under a new department, the State Hydro-Electric Department (SHD), later renamed in 1958 as the New Zealand Electricity Department (NZED). In 1978, the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy assumed responsibility for electricity generation, transmission, policy advice and regulation.[31]
The reformist Fourth Labour Government corporatised the Electricity Division as a State Owned Enterprise in 1987, as the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ), which traded for a period as Electricorp. In 1994, ECNZ's transmission business was split off as Transpower. In 1996, ECNZ was split again, with a new generation business, Contact Energy, being formed. The Shipley Government privatised Contact Energy in 1999. From 1 April 1999, the remainder of ECNZ was split again, with the major assets formed into three new SOEs (Mighty River Power, Genesis Power and Meridian Energy) and with the minor assets being sold off.[32]
[edit] Energy policy
Renewable energy sources make up approximately 70% of the nation's electricity production, with the New Zealand energy industry for example reporting a 73% share in March quarter 2010.[28] The previous government had the goal of increasing this to 90% by 2025,[33] the current National government has put priority on security of supply.[34]
New Zealand's previous Labour government introduced a number of measures in the 2000s as part of the vision of New Zealand becoming carbon neutral by 2020,[12][35] and intended to collect levies for greenhouse effect emissions from 2010 onwards, to be added to power prices depending on the level of emissions.[36] However, the incoming National government quickly tabled legislation to repeal various of these measures, such as obligatory targets for biofuel percentages,[37] a ban on construction of new fossil fueled generation plants[38] and a ban on future sales of incandescent light bulbs.[39]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ a b c d e "New Zealand Energy Quarterly - March 2011". New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development. 16 June 2011. http://www.med.govt.nz/upload/77143/NZEQ_March_2011.pdf. Retrieved 6 July 2011.
- ^ "National Population Estimates: December 2010 quarter". Statistics New Zealand. 14 February 2011. http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/population/estimates_and_projections/NationalPopulationEstimates_HOTPDec10qtr.aspx. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "Quarterly Residential Electricity Prices to 15 February 2011". Ministry of Economic Development. http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentTOC____45787.aspx. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Energy Data File". Ministry of Economic Development. 16 July 2011. http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentTOC____46119.aspx.
- ^ a b New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 98
- ^ Simon O'Rourke and Paula Oliver (6 July 2007). "Farmers plan war over power pylons". The New Zealand Herald. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10449992.
- ^ a b New Zealand Historical Atlas - McKinnon, Malcolm (Editor); David Bateman, 1997, Plate 88
- ^ "MED Energy Sector Information: Waitaki River". MED. http://www.med.govt.nz/templates/MultipageDocumentPage____10581.aspx. Retrieved 2008-12-24.
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[edit] Further reading
- Martin, John E, ed. (1991). People, Power and Power Stations: Electric Power Generation in New Zealand 1880 - 1990. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books Ltd and Electricity Corporation of New Zealand. pp. 316 pages.. ISBN 0-908912-16-1.
- Reilly, Helen (2008). Connecting the Country: New Zealand’s National Grid 1886 - 2007. Wellington: Steele Roberts. pp. 376 pages.. ISBN 978-1-877448-40-9.
[edit] External links
- New Zealand Electricity Authority
- Energy and Resources (New Zealand Government, portfolio website)
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