Plastic shopping bag

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File:Plastiktueten.jpg
Plastic shopping bags are manufactured in various sizes and types.

Plastic shopping bags, carrier bags or plastic grocery bags are a type of shopping bag made from various kinds of plastic. In use by consumers worldwide since the 1960s,[1] these bags are sometimes called single-use bags, referring to carrying items from a store to a home. However, reuse for storage or trash is common, and modern plastic shopping bags are increasingly recyclable or biodegradable.

History

American and European patent applications relating to the production of plastic shopping bags can be found dating back to the early 1950s, but these refer to composite constructions with handles fixed to the bag in a secondary manufacturing process. The modern lightweight shopping bag is the invention of Swedish engineer Sten Gustaf Thulin.[1] In the early 1960s, Thulin developed a method of forming a simple one-piece bag by folding, welding and die-cutting a flat tube of plastic for the packaging company Celloplast of Norrköping, Sweden. Thulin's design produced a simple, strong bag with a high load-carrying capacity, and was patented worldwide by Celloplast in 1965.

Celloplast was a well-established producer of cellulose film and a pioneer in plastics processing. The company's patent position gave it a virtual monopoly on plastic shopping bag production, and the company set up manufacturing plants across Europe and in the US. However, other companies saw the attraction of the bag, too, and the US petrochemicals group Mobil overturned Celloplast's US patent in 1977.

The Dixie Bag Company of College Park, Georgia, owned and operated by Jack W. McBride, was one of the first companies to exploit this new opportunity to bring convenient products to all major shopping stores. The Dixie Bag Company, along with similar firms such as Houston Poly Bag and Capitol Poly, was instrumental in the manufacturing, marketing and perfecting of plastic bags in the 1980s. Kroger, a Cincinnati-based grocery chain, began to replace its paper shopping bags with plastic bags in 1982,[2] and was soon followed by its rival, Safeway.[2]

Without its plastic bag monopoly, Celloplast's business went into decline, and the company was split up during the 1990s. The Norrköping site remains a plastics production site, however, and is now the headquarters of Miljösäck, Sweden’s largest producer of waste sacks manufactured from recycled polyethylene.[citation needed]

From the mid-1980s onwards, plastic bags became common for carrying daily groceries from the store to vehicles and homes throughout the developed world. As plastic bags increasingly replaced paper bags, and as other plastic materials and products replaced glass, metal, stone, timber and other materials, a packaging materials war erupted, with plastic shopping bags at the center of highly publicized disputes. Although few peer-reviewed studies or government surveys have provided estimates for global plastic bag use, environmental activists estimate that between 500 billion and 1 trillion plastic bags are used each year worldwide.[3] In 2009, the United States International Trade Commission reported that 102 billion plastic bags are used annually in the United States.[4]

Manufacture and composition

Traditional plastic bags are usually made from polyethylene, which consists of long chains of ethylene monomers. Ethylene is derived from natural gas and petroleum. The polyethylene used in most plastic shopping bags is either low-density (resin identification code 4) or, more often, high-density (resin identification code 2).[5] Plastic shopping bags are commonly manufactured by blown film extrusion.[citation needed]

Biodegradable materials

Some modern bags are made of vegetable-based bioplastics, which can decay organically and prevent a build-up of toxic plastic bags in landfills and the natural environment. Bags can also be made from degradable polyethylene film. However, most degradable bags do not readily decompose in a sealed landfill[6] and represent a possible contaminant to plastic recycling operations. Plastic shopping bags could be made from polylactic acid (PLA), a biodegradable polymer derived from lactic acid, although this is not widely used.[7] In general, biodegradable plastic bags need to be kept separate from conventional plastic recycling systems.

Environmental concerns

According to Vincent Cobb, a manufacturer of reusable bags, each year millions of discarded plastic shopping bags end up as litter in the environment when improperly disposed of.[8] The same properties that have made plastic bags so commercially successful and ubiquitous—namely their low weight and resistance to degradation—have also contributed to their proliferation in the environment. Due to their durability, plastic bags can take centuries to decompose.[8]

On land, plastic bags are one of the most prevalent types of litter in inhabited areas. Large buildups of plastic bags can clog drainage systems and contribute to flooding, as occurred in Bangladesh in 1988 and 1998[9] and almost annually in Manila.[10][11]

Plastic bags were found to constitute a significant portion of the floating marine debris in the waters around southern Chile in a study conducted between 2002 and 2005.[12] If washed out to sea, plastic bags can be carried long distances by ocean currents, and can strangle marine animals.

Littering is often a serious problem in developing countries, where trash collection infrastructure is less developed than in wealthier nations.[13] The relatively limited adoption of modern biodegradable plastic bags means that many older landfills are filled with large, persistent deposits of non-degrading bags.[citation needed] It is, however, possible that in the future these deposits could be mined and reprocessed to replace dwindling raw material resources.[citation needed]

Reuse and recycling

Heavy-duty plastic shopping bags are suitable for reuse as reusable shopping bags. Lighter weight bags are often reused as trash bags or to pick up pet feces. All types of plastic shopping bag can be recycled into new bags where effective collection schemes exist.

By the mid-2000s, the expansion of recycling infrastructure in the United States yielded a 7% rate of plastic bag recycling. This corresponded to more than 800,000,000 pounds (360,000 tonnes) of bags and plastic film being recycled in 2007 alone.[14] Each ton of recycled plastic bags saves the energy equivalent of 11 barrels of oil, although most bags are produced from natural-gas-derived stock.[15] In light of a 2002 Australian study showing that more than 60% of bags are reused as bin liners and for other purposes,[16] the 7% recycling rate accounts for 17.5% of the plastic bags available for recycling.

According to the UK's Environment Agency, 76% of British carrier bags are reused.[17] An estimated 90% of individuals reuse some plastic bags, and 56% of individuals reuse all plastic shopping bags.[18]

Bag legislation

Bans

Plastic bags are either restricted or completely banned in over a quarter of the world's countries.[19] Belgium, Italy, Ireland and Hong Kong have legislation discouraging the use and encouraging the recycling of plastic bags by imposing a fixed or minimum levy for the supply of plastic bags or obliging retailers to recycle.[20][21][22] In November 2011, the government of Ethiopia passed legislation banning the import and manufacture of plastic bags as part of its national green growth initiative.[23] The Republic of Congo announced in June 2011 that it would enact legislation to ban plastic bags,[24] and Rwanda has had legislation against plastic bags in place since 2006.[25] Italy banned plastic bags entirely in January 2011. In December 2009, the Tibet Autonomous Regional Government imposed a ban on disposable plastic bags "in all county seats and main scenic spots".[26] Plastic bags are banned in many other jurisdictions, including Bangladesh, South Africa and three states/territories of Australia.[27][28]

In the United States, bans have been imposed at the local level, starting with San Francisco in 2007. In 2008, Westport, Connecticut, banned plastic bags in grocery stores.[19][29] In 2009, Edmonds, Washington, banned plastic bags at retail stores.[30] In 2010, Los Angeles County; Brownsville, Texas; and Bethel, Alaska, approved similar bans.[31][32] During the first few months of 2011, bans went into effect in North Carolina’s Outerbanks Region, banning all plastic bags at all retailers.[33] On October 15, 2011, Portland, Oregon, instituted a ban on plastic bags, targeted at large-volume supermarkets and retail outlets.[34] Seattle, Washington, followed suit on December 19, 2011, when its city council voted unanimously to ban single-use plastic bags from grocery stores and other retail outlets.[35] On January 1, 2012, a ban on plastic bags at retail stores went into force in San Jose, California.[36] In May 2012, Hawaii became the first US state to have all its counties pass a plastic bag ban, essentially banning them statewide. Kauai and Maui counties already had bans in place by 2012, while Hawaii County's ban is scheduled to start on January 17, 2013, and the City and County of Honolulu's ban starts on July 1, 2015.[37] Similar plastic-bag bans have been imposed at the municipality level in India, Mexico and the United Kingdom.[20]

Taxes

A plastic bag levy introduced in Ireland in 2002 resulted in a reduction of over 90% in the issuing of plastic shopping bags.[38] Similarly, a ban on free plastic bags introduced in China in 2008 resulted in a reduction of two-thirds in the issuing of plastic bags.[39] In Taiwan, plastic bags from supermarkets and other shops cost NT$2. In Wales, a 5-pence charge has been enforced on all plastic shopping bags since 1 October 2011.[40] The Northern Ireland Executive has also announced a five pence tax on plastic bags, to be implemented in 2013.[41]

In the United States, the California legislature rejected a 25-cent bag tax in June 2009.[42] In August 2009, Seattle voters rejected a 20-cent bag tax previously approved by city leaders,[43] though the Seattle City Council unanimously voted to ban plastic bags and enact a 5-cent paper bag tax in December 2011.[44] A five-cent tax levied on plastic bags in Washington, DC in January 2010 resulted in a decrease in consumption from 22.5 million to 3 million bags in the first month alone.[45] However, a 2011 study issued by the anti-tax lobby group Americans for Tax Reform found that the District of Columbia’s five-cent bag tax had a disproportionate impact on the city’s poor and cost the city over 100 jobs.[46] In Virginia, various bills including a 20-cent and 5-cent bag tax failed to pass the state senate.[47] A similar tax failed to move forward in nearby Prince George's County, Maryland, in April 2011, and opponents cited concerns about jobs and the economy.[48] Montgomery County, Maryland, approved a five-cent tax in May 2011.[49]

Recycling laws

Many cities and states in the United States – including California, New York, Chicago, Delaware and Baltimore – have addressed bag litter and landfill by enacting new recycling laws.[50][51][52][53][54]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b European Plastics News: Plastic T-Shirt Carrier Bag (1965). 26 September 2008. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
  2. ^ a b Natural Resource Defense Council
  3. ^ Joan Lowy (20 July 2004). "Plastic left holding the bag as environmental plague". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved 1 December 2010.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  4. ^ http://www.usitc.gov/publications/701_731/pub4080.pdf
  5. ^ US Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, US Life Cycle Inventory Database
  6. ^ The Guardian – biodegradable plastic bags carry more ecological harm than good
  7. ^ Notes from the Packaging Laboratory: Polylactic Acid – An Exciting New Packaging Material
  8. ^ a b John Roach (2003). "Are Plastic Grocery Bags Sacking the Environment?". National Geographic News. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
  9. ^ "Planet Earth's new nemesis?". BBC News. 8 May 2002. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
  10. ^ "Plastic bags & Metro Floods". Manila Bulletin Publishing Corporation. 4 February 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
  11. ^ "The Manila Floods: Why Wasn't the City Prepared?". ICIMOD. 29 September 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
  12. ^ Hinojosa IA, Thiel M (2009). "Floating marine debris in fjords, gulfs and channels of southern Chile". Mar Pollut Bull. 58 (3): 341–50. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.10.020. PMID 19124136.
  13. ^ Brett Israel (2010). "Plastic bag found floating near Titanic shipwreck". Today. Retrieved 1 December 2010.
  14. ^ 2007 National Post-Consumer Recycled Plastic Bag & Film Report
  15. ^ Questions About Your Community: Shopping Bags: Paper or Plastic or ...?
  16. ^ Plastic shopping bags in Australia. Environment.gov.au (2010-06-13). Retrieved on 2010-11-23.
  17. ^ Environment Agency (2011). "Evidence: Life Cycle Assessment of Supermarket Carrier Bags" (PDF). Environment Agency. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  18. ^ Irena Choi Stern (5 August 2007). "Greening Up by Cutting Down on Plastic Bags". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 April 2011. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
  19. ^ a b Zev Yaroslavsky; Tim Shestek, Matthew Dodson; Giles Slade. "LA County Bans Plastic Bags" (audio) (Interview). Interviewed by Warren Olney. Retrieved 21 November 2010. {{cite interview}}: Unknown parameter |and in india delhi and hyderabd in the south date= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |callsign= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |program= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b Rachel Cernansky (August 17, 2010). "How Many Cities Have a Ban on Plastic Bags?". Planet Green. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  21. ^ {{cite In 2007, Annapolis, Md., was the first U.S. city to propose a total ban on plastic checkout bags when then-Alderman Sam Shropshire waged a campaign against them. While Maryland's bag campaign failed, it fueled efforts in other cities. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/37514616/ns/us_news-environment/t/calif-could-be-first-ban-plastic-bags/#.Tz6GePEgc4I web|url=http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/psb/en/environmental.html%7Ctitle=Environmental Levy Scheme on Plastic Shopping Bags|publisher=Government of Hong Kong SAR: Environmental Protection Department | year=2009| accessdate=19 November 2010}}
  22. ^ "Plastic Bag Recycling". NYCWasteLe$$. NYC Department of Sanitation. 2010. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  23. ^ The Africa Report. Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  24. ^ The Guardian, 2 June 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  25. ^ BBC News. Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  26. ^ Xinhua (2009-02-10). "Tibet to ban use of plastic bags from December". Focus on Tibet. Retrieved 2012-04-07.
  27. ^ Andrew Darby (November 12, 2010). "Ban on plastic bags spreads to Tasmania". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
  28. ^ Kathrine Mieszkowski (August 20, 2010). "Plastic bags are killing us". Salon. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
  29. ^ Ali Eaves (August 9, 2010). "States weigh bans on plastic grocery bags". Stateline. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  30. ^ Lynn Thompson (28 July 2009). "Edmonds is first city in state to ban plastic grocery bags". The Seattle Times. Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  31. ^ "Bethel, Alaska bans plastic bags". Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  32. ^ Emma Perez-Treviño (5 January 2010). "Brownsville commission adopts ban on plastic bags". Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  33. ^ Erin James (1 October 2010). "North Carolina bans plastic bags at all businesses on Outer Banks". Retrieved 24 March 2011.
  34. ^ John Tarantino (12 October 2011). "Portland Joins the Ban on Plastic Bags".
  35. ^ Associated Press (December 19, 2011). "Officials Ban Single-Use Plastic Bags". NPR. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
  36. ^ "Customers react as San Jose bans plastic bags". ABC7 News, 1 January 2012. Retrieved 2012-01-08.
  37. ^ "Hawaii Now Has Statewide Plastic Bag Ban…With Significant Loopholes". Care2.com, 16 May 2012.
  38. ^ "Plastic Bags". Irish Government: Dept. of Environment, Heritage, and Local Government. 2007. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  39. ^ Xing, Xiufeng (2009). "Study on the Ban on Free Plastic Bags in China". Journal of Sustainable Development. 2 (1): 156–158. Retrieved 19 November 2010. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ Carrier Bag Charge Wales. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
  41. ^ "Tax on plastic bags introduced in April 2013". BBC. 30 January 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
  42. ^ "California Legislature fails to pass 25 cent bag tax". Plastics News. 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
  43. ^ "Seattle Rejects Its Plastic Bag Tax". Business Insider. 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
  44. ^ "Seattle bans plastic bags". New York Times, 20 December 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-12.
  45. ^ Brian Merchant (2010). "Plastic Bags Used in DC Drop From 22 Million to 3 Million a Month". Treehugger. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
  46. ^ "Impact of Bill 18-150 on the Economy of Washington, D.C." (PDF). The Beacon Hill Institute at Suffolk University. 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
  47. ^ "Bills to tax disposable grocery bags in Va. fail to advance". The Virginian Pilot. 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
  48. ^ Daniel Valentine. "Lawmakers dump Prince George's plan for plastic bag tax". Retrieved 25 April 2011.
  49. ^ Alexander, Keith L. (3 May 2011). "Montgomery County Council passes 5-cent bag tax". The Washington Post. Retrieved 5 May 2011.
  50. ^ Assembly Bill No. 2449. Chapter 845
  51. ^ NYCWasteLe$: Plastic Bag Recycling – consumer info. Nyc. gov (2008-12-13). Retrieved on 2010-11-23.
  52. ^ Plastic Bag Recycling in Chicago. Chicagorecycling.org. Retrieved on 2010-11-23.
  53. ^ Governor Markell signs bill promoting plastic bag recycling. Governor.delaware.gov. Retrieved on 2010-11-23.
  54. ^ Plastic Bag Reduction. Cityservices.baltimorecity.gov. Retrieved on 2010-11-23.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plastic bags.
  • Selke, Susan. Packaging and the Environment, 1994, ISBN 1-56676-104-2
  • Selke, Susan. Plastics Packaging, 2004, ISBN 1-56990-372-7
  • Stillwell, E. J. Packaging for the Environment, A. D. Little, 1991, ISBN 0-8144-5074-1
  • Scheirs, J. Polymer Recycling: Science, Technology and Applications, 1998, ISBN 0-471-97054-9
  • Celloplast 1965 US Patent: Copy of US Patent 5669504
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