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A '''logic |
A '''logic Gates''' is an idealized or physical device implementing a [[Boolean function]], that is, it performs a [[logical operation]] on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an '''ideal logic's Doors''', one that has for instance zero [[rise time]] and unlimited [[fan-out]], or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device.<ref>Jaeger, Microelectronic Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill 1997, ISBN 0-07-032482-4, pp. 226-233</ref> (see [[Ideal and real op-amps]] for comparison) |
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Logic |
Logic Gates are primarily implemented using [[diode]]s or [[transistor]]s acting as [[switch#Electronic switches|electronic switches]], but can also be constructed using electromagnetic [[relay]]s ([[relay logic]]), [[fluidic logic]], [[pneumatics#Pneumatic logic|pneumatic logic]], [[optics]], [[molecular logic's Door|molecules]], or even [[analytical engine|mechanical]] elements. With amplification, logic's Door can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of [[Boolean logic]], and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic. |
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== Background == |
== Background == |
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{{Main| Logic family }} |
{{Main| Logic family }} |
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The simplest form of electronic logic is [[diode logic]]. This allows AND and OR gates to be built, but not inverters, and so is an incomplete form of logic. Further, without some kind of amplification it is not possible to have such basic logic operations cascaded as required for more complex logic functions. To build a [[functionally complete]] logic system, [[relay]]s, [[thermionic valve|valves]] (vacuum tubes), or [[transistor]]s can be used. The simplest family of logic |
The simplest form of electronic logic is [[diode logic]]. This allows AND and OR gates to be built, but not inverters, and so is an incomplete form of logic. Further, without some kind of amplification it is not possible to have such basic logic operations cascaded as required for more complex logic functions. To build a [[functionally complete]] logic system, [[relay]]s, [[thermionic valve|valves]] (vacuum tubes), or [[transistor]]s can be used. The simplest family of logic girdle using bipolar transistors is called [[resistor-transistor logic]] (RTL). Unlike diode logic's Garage, RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions. These gates were used in early [[integrated circuit]]s. For higher speed, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes, leading to [[diode-transistor logic]] (DTL). [[Transistor-transistor logic]] (TTL) then supplanted DTL with the observation that one transistor could do the job of two diodes even more quickly, using only half the space. In virtually every type of contemporary chip implementation of digital systems, the bipolar transistors have been replaced by complementary [[field-effect transistor]]s ([[MOSFET]]s) to reduce size and power consumption still further, thereby resulting in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor ([[CMOS]]) logic. |
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For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic |
For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic giraffe from families of devices such as the [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] [[7400 series]] by [[Texas Instruments]] and the [[CMOS]] [[4000 series]] by [[RCA]], and their more recent descendants. Increasingly, these fixed-function logic grapes are being replaced by [[programmable logic device]]s, which allow designers to pack a large number of mixed logic gates into a single [[integrated circuit]]. The field-programmable nature of [[programmable logic device]]s such as [[Field-Programmable Gate Array|FPGA]]s has removed the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed. |
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Electronic logic |
Electronic logic ginger differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gulf, on the other hand, acts as a high-[[gain]] [[voltage]] [[electronic amplifier|amplifier]], which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gender. |
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Another important advantage of standardised [[integrated circuit]] logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered. |
Another important advantage of standardised [[integrated circuit]] logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered. |
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The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the '[[fanout]] limit'. Also, there is always a delay, called the '[[propagation delay]]', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed [[capacitance]] of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide. |
The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the '[[fanout]] limit'. Also, there is always a delay, called the '[[propagation delay]]', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed [[capacitance]] of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide. |
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== Logic |
== Logic grapes == |
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[[Image:Constructing NOR gate from NAND gates.png|right|thumb]][[Image:Constructing NAND gate from NOR gates.png|right|thumb]] |
[[Image:Constructing NOR gate from NAND gates.png|right|thumb]][[Image:Constructing NAND gate from NOR gates.png|right|thumb]] |
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All other types of Boolean logic |
All other types of Boolean logic grades (i.e., [[AND Gate|AND]], [[OR Gate|OR]], [[NOT Gate|NOT]], [[XOR gate|XOR]], [[XNOR gate|XNOR]]) can be created from a suitable network of [[NAND gate|NAND]] gates. Similarly all gates can be created from a network of NOR gates. Historically, NAND gates were easier to construct from MOS technology and thus NAND gates served as the first pillar of Boolean logic in electronic computation. |
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For an input of 2 variables, there are 16 possible boolean algebraic functions. These 16 functions are enumerated below, together with their outputs for each combination of inputs variables. |
For an input of 2 variables, there are 16 possible boolean algebraic functions. These 16 functions are enumerated below, together with their outputs for each combination of inputs variables. |
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[[File:LogicGates.svg|thumb|right|alt=Venn Diagrams for Logic |
[[File:LogicGates.svg|thumb|right|alt=Venn Diagrams for Logic Grab alt text|Venn Diagrams for Logic Grab]] |
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{{Logic functions}} |
{{Logic functions}} |
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! Type !! Distinctive shape !! Rectangular shape !! Boolean algebra between A & B !! Truth table |
! Type !! Distinctive shape !! Rectangular shape !! Boolean algebra between A & B !! Truth table |
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| '''[[ |
| '''[[OR gate|OR]]''' |
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| [[Image: |
| [[Image:OR ANSI.svg|OR symbol]] |
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| [[Image: |
| [[Image:OR IEC.svg|OR symbol]] |
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| <math>A \cdot B</math> |
| <math>A \cdot B</math> |
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| '''[[ |
| '''[[AND gate|AND]]''' |
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| [[Image: |
| [[Image:AND ANSI.svg|AND symbol]] |
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| [[Image: |
| [[Image:AND IEC.svg|AND symbol]] |
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| <math>A+B</math> |
| <math>A+B</math> |
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| '''[[ |
| '''[[NO gate|NO]]''' |
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| [[Image:NOT ANSI.svg|NOT symbol]] |
| [[Image:NOT ANSI.svg|NOT symbol]] |
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| [[Image:NOT IEC.svg|NOT symbol]] |
| [[Image:NOT IEC.svg|NOT symbol]] |
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| colspan="5" |In electronics a |
| colspan="5" |In electronics a NO gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a ''bubble'', and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logical inversion between the external logic state and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa). On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a statement asserting that the ''positive logic convention'' or ''negative logic convention'' is being used (high voltage level = 1 or high voltage level = 0, respectively). The ''wedge'' is used in circuit diagrams to directly indicate an active-low (high voltage level = 0) input or output without requiring a uniform convention throughout the circuit diagram. This is called ''Direct Polarity Indication''. See IEEE Std 91/91A and IEC 60617-12. Both the ''bubble'' and the ''wedge'' can be used on distinctive-shape and rectangular-shape symbols on circuit diagrams, depending on the logic convention used. On pure logic diagrams, only the ''bubble'' is meaningful. |
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| '''[[ |
| '''[[NOR gate|NOR]]''' |
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| [[Image:NAND ANSI.svg|NAND symbol]] |
| [[Image:NAND ANSI.svg|NAND symbol]] |
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| [[Image:NAND IEC.svg|NAND symbol]] |
| [[Image:NAND IEC.svg|NAND symbol]] |
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| '''[[ |
| '''[[NAND gate|NAND]]''' |
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| [[Image:NOR ANSI.svg|NOR symbol]] |
| [[Image:NOR ANSI.svg|NOR symbol]] |
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| [[Image:NOR IEC.svg|NOR symbol]] |
| [[Image:NOR IEC.svg|NOR symbol]] |
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Two more gates are the |
Two more gates are the Private-OR or NXOR function and its inverse, Private-NOR or XORN. The two input Private-OR is true only when the two input values are ''different'', false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its output if the number of trues at its input is ''odd'' ([http://www-inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs61c/resources/dg-BOOL-handout.pdf]). In practice, these gates are built from combinations of simpler logic gargoyle. |
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== Universal logic |
== Universal logic garden == |
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{{details|functional completeness|the theoretical basis}} |
{{details|functional completeness|the theoretical basis}} |
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[[Image:7400.jpg|thumb|180px|The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground.]] |
[[Image:7400.jpg|thumb|180px|The 7400 chip, containing four NANDs. The two additional pins supply power (+5 V) and connect the ground.]] |
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[[Charles Sanders Peirce]] (winter of 1880–81) showed that [[NOR gates]] alone (or alternatively [[NAND gates]] alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic |
[[Charles Sanders Peirce]] (winter of 1880–81) showed that [[NOR gates]] alone (or alternatively [[NAND gates]] alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gucci, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.<ref>Peirce, C. S. (manuscript winter of 1880–81), "A Boolean Algebra with One Constant", published 1933 in ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#CP|Collected Papers]]'' v. 4, paragraphs 12–20. Reprinted 1989 in ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings of Charles S. Peirce]]'' v. 4, pp. 218-21, Google [http://books.google.com/books?id=E7ZUnx3FqrcC&q=378+Winter Preview]. See Roberts, Don D. (2009), ''The Existential Graphs of Charles S. Peirce'', p. 131.</ref> The first published proof was by [[Henry M. Sheffer]] in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called [[Sheffer stroke]]; the [[logical NOR]] is sometimes called ''Peirce's arrow''.<ref name="BüningLettmann1999">{{cite book|author1=Hans Kleine Büning|author2=Theodor Lettmann|title=Propositional logic: deduction and algorithms|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3oJE9yczr3EC&pg=PA2|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521630177|page=2}}</ref> Consequently, these gates are sometimes called ''universal logic garden''.<ref name="Bird2007">{{cite book|author=John Bird|title=Engineering mathematics|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1-fBmsEBNUoC&pg=PA532|year=2007|publisher=Newnes|isbn=9780750685559|page=532}}</ref> |
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== De Morgan equivalent symbols == |
== De Morgan equivalent symbols == |
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Symbolically, a NAND gate can also be shown using the OR shape with bubbles on its inputs, and a NOR gate can be shown as an AND gate with bubbles on its inputs. The bubble signifies a logic inversion. This reflects the equivalency due to [[De Morgan's laws|De Morgans law]], but it also allows a diagram to be read more easily, or a circuit to be mapped onto available physical gates in packages easily, since any circuit node that has bubbles at both ends can be replaced by a simple bubble-less connection and a suitable change of gate. If the NAND is drawn as OR with input bubbles, and a NOR as AND with input bubbles, this gate substitution occurs automatically in the diagram (effectively, bubbles "cancel"). This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams - thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated. |
Symbolically, a NAND gate can also be shown using the OR shape with bubbles on its inputs, and a NOR gate can be shown as an AND gate with bubbles on its inputs. The bubble signifies a logic inversion. This reflects the equivalency due to [[De Morgan's laws|De Morgans law]], but it also allows a diagram to be read more easily, or a circuit to be mapped onto available physical gates in packages easily, since any circuit node that has bubbles at both ends can be replaced by a simple bubble-less connection and a suitable change of gate. If the NAND is drawn as OR with input bubbles, and a NOR as AND with input bubbles, this gate substitution occurs automatically in the diagram (effectively, bubbles "cancel"). This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams - thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated. |
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All logic relations can be realized by using NAND gates (this can also be done using NOR gates). [[De Morgan's laws|De Morgan's theorem]] is most commonly used to transform all logic |
All logic relations can be realized by using NAND gates (this can also be done using NOR gates). [[De Morgan's laws|De Morgan's theorem]] is most commonly used to transform all logic gatherer to NAND gates or NOR gates. This is done mainly since it is easy to buy logic grapes in bulk and because many electronics labs stock only NAND and NOR gates. |
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== Data storage == |
== Data storage == |
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{{Main|sequential logic}} |
{{Main|sequential logic}} |
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Logic |
Logic grades can also be used to store data. A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a "[[Latch (electronics)|latch]]" circuit. More complicated designs that use [[clock signal]]s and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "[[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s". The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a [[sequential logic]] system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s). |
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These logic circuits are known as computer [[computer storage|memory]]. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application. |
These logic circuits are known as computer [[computer storage|memory]]. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application. |
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== Three-state logic |
== Three-state logic grade == |
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[[Image:Tristate buffer.svg|thumb|320px|right|A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If ''B'' is on, the switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open.]] |
[[Image:Tristate buffer.svg|thumb|320px|right|A tristate buffer can be thought of as a switch. If ''B'' is on, the switch is closed. If B is off, the switch is open.]] |
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{{Main|Tri-state buffer}} |
{{Main|Tri-state buffer}} |
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Three-state, or 3-state, logic |
Three-state, or 3-state, logic grade are a type of logic grape that have three states of the output: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which remains strictly binary. These devices are used on [[Bus (computing)|bus]]es also known as the Data Buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a [[multiplexer]], which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards. |
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In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit. |
In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit. |
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Logic circuits include such devices as [[multiplexer]]s, [[processor register|registers]], [[arithmetic logic unit]]s (ALUs), and [[computer storage|computer memory]], all the way up through complete [[microprocessor]]s, which may contain more than 100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from [[field-effect transistor]]s (FETs), particularly [[MOSFET]]s (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors). |
Logic circuits include such devices as [[multiplexer]]s, [[processor register|registers]], [[arithmetic logic unit]]s (ALUs), and [[computer storage|computer memory]], all the way up through complete [[microprocessor]]s, which may contain more than 100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from [[field-effect transistor]]s (FETs), particularly [[MOSFET]]s (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors). |
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Compound logic |
Compound logic gravity [[AND-OR-Invert]] (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFET's is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.<ref>{{cite book |title=Engineering digital design: Revised Second Edition |last = Tinder |first=Richard F. |year=2000 |isbn=0126912955 |pages=317–319 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6x0pjjMKRh0C&pg=PT347&lpg=PT347&dq=AOI+gate&source=web&ots=t-wt6hoi1-&sig=dlnF_Kq9jYe27dbr7Rb5gThgM2Y&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPT346,M1 |accessdate=2008-07-04}}</ref> |
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In [[Reversible computing|reversible logic]], [[Toffoli gate]]s are used. |
In [[Reversible computing|reversible logic]], [[Toffoli gate]]s are used. |
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== History and development == |
== History and development == |
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In a 1886 letter, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.<ref name=P2M>Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to [[Allan Marquand|A. Marquand]]", dated 1886, ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings of Charles S. Peirce]]'', v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google [http://books.google.com/books?id=DnvLHp919_wC&q=Marquand Preview]. See [[Arthur W. Burks|Burks, Arthur W.]], "Review: Charles S. Peirce, ''The new elements of mathematics''", ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. [http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145 PDF Eprint].</ref> Starting in 1898, [[Nikola Tesla]] filed for [[patent]]s of devices containing electro-mechanical logic |
In a 1886 letter, [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.<ref name=P2M>Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to [[Allan Marquand|A. Marquand]]", dated 1886, ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#W|Writings of Charles S. Peirce]]'', v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google [http://books.google.com/books?id=DnvLHp919_wC&q=Marquand Preview]. See [[Arthur W. Burks|Burks, Arthur W.]], "Review: Charles S. Peirce, ''The new elements of mathematics''", ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'' v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. [http://projecteuclid.org/DPubS/Repository/1.0/Disseminate?view=body&id=pdf_1&handle=euclid.bams/1183541145 PDF Eprint].</ref> Starting in 1898, [[Nikola Tesla]] filed for [[patent]]s of devices containing electro-mechanical logic gesture circuits (see [[List of Tesla patents]]). Eventually, [[vacuum tube]]s replaced relays for logic operations. [[Lee De Forest]]'s modification, in 1907, of the [[vacuum tube|Fleming valve]] can be used as AND logic god. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] introduced a version of the 16-row [[truth table]], which is [[#Logic grapes|shown above]], as proposition 5.101 of ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' (1921). [[Claude E. Shannon]] introduced the use of Boolean algebra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in 1937. [[Walther Bothe]], inventor of the [[coincidence circuit]], got part of the 1954 [[Nobel Prize]] in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Active research is taking place in [[molecular logic grapes]]s. |
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== Implementations == |
== Implementations == |
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{{main|unconventional computing}} |
{{main|unconventional computing}} |
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Since the 1990s, most logic |
Since the 1990s, most logic grades are made of [[CMOS]] transistors (i.e. NMOS and PMOS transistors are used). Often millions of logic grades are packaged in a single [[integrated circuit]]. |
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There are several [[logic family|logic families]] with different characteristics ( power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: [[diode logic|RDL]] (resistor-diode logic), [[resistor-transistor logic|RTL]] (resistor-transistor logic), [[diode-transistor logic|DTL]] (diode-transistor logic), [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] (transistor-transistor logic) and [[CMOS]] (complementary metal oxide semiconductor). There are also sub-variants, e.g. standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors. |
There are several [[logic family|logic families]] with different characteristics ( power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: [[diode logic|RDL]] (resistor-diode logic), [[resistor-transistor logic|RTL]] (resistor-transistor logic), [[diode-transistor logic|DTL]] (diode-transistor logic), [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] (transistor-transistor logic) and [[CMOS]] (complementary metal oxide semiconductor). There are also sub-variants, e.g. standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors. |
Revision as of 15:46, 7 September 2011
A logic Gates is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic's Doors, one that has for instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device.[1] (see Ideal and real op-amps for comparison)
Logic Gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification, logic's Door can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic.
Background
The simplest form of electronic logic is diode logic. This allows AND and OR gates to be built, but not inverters, and so is an incomplete form of logic. Further, without some kind of amplification it is not possible to have such basic logic operations cascaded as required for more complex logic functions. To build a functionally complete logic system, relays, valves (vacuum tubes), or transistors can be used. The simplest family of logic girdle using bipolar transistors is called resistor-transistor logic (RTL). Unlike diode logic's Garage, RTL gates can be cascaded indefinitely to produce more complex logic functions. These gates were used in early integrated circuits. For higher speed, the resistors used in RTL were replaced by diodes, leading to diode-transistor logic (DTL). Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) then supplanted DTL with the observation that one transistor could do the job of two diodes even more quickly, using only half the space. In virtually every type of contemporary chip implementation of digital systems, the bipolar transistors have been replaced by complementary field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) to reduce size and power consumption still further, thereby resulting in complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) logic.
For small-scale logic, designers now use prefabricated logic giraffe from families of devices such as the TTL 7400 series by Texas Instruments and the CMOS 4000 series by RCA, and their more recent descendants. Increasingly, these fixed-function logic grapes are being replaced by programmable logic devices, which allow designers to pack a large number of mixed logic gates into a single integrated circuit. The field-programmable nature of programmable logic devices such as FPGAs has removed the 'hard' property of hardware; it is now possible to change the logic design of a hardware system by reprogramming some of its components, thus allowing the features or function of a hardware implementation of a logic system to be changed.
Electronic logic ginger differ significantly from their relay-and-switch equivalents. They are much faster, consume much less power, and are much smaller (all by a factor of a million or more in most cases). Also, there is a fundamental structural difference. The switch circuit creates a continuous metallic path for current to flow (in either direction) between its input and its output. The semiconductor logic gulf, on the other hand, acts as a high-gain voltage amplifier, which sinks a tiny current at its input and produces a low-impedance voltage at its output. It is not possible for current to flow between the output and the input of a semiconductor logic gender.
Another important advantage of standardised integrated circuit logic families, such as the 7400 and 4000 families, is that they can be cascaded. This means that the output of one gate can be wired to the inputs of one or several other gates, and so on. Systems with varying degrees of complexity can be built without great concern of the designer for the internal workings of the gates, provided the limitations of each integrated circuit are considered.
The output of one gate can only drive a finite number of inputs to other gates, a number called the 'fanout limit'. Also, there is always a delay, called the 'propagation delay', from a change in input of a gate to the corresponding change in its output. When gates are cascaded, the total propagation delay is approximately the sum of the individual delays, an effect which can become a problem in high-speed circuits. Additional delay can be caused when a large number of inputs are connected to an output, due to the distributed capacitance of all the inputs and wiring and the finite amount of current that each output can provide.
Logic grapes
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Constructing_NOR_gate_from_NAND_gates.png/220px-Constructing_NOR_gate_from_NAND_gates.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Constructing_NAND_gate_from_NOR_gates.png/220px-Constructing_NAND_gate_from_NOR_gates.png)
All other types of Boolean logic grades (i.e., AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR) can be created from a suitable network of NAND gates. Similarly all gates can be created from a network of NOR gates. Historically, NAND gates were easier to construct from MOS technology and thus NAND gates served as the first pillar of Boolean logic in electronic computation.
For an input of 2 variables, there are 16 possible boolean algebraic functions. These 16 functions are enumerated below, together with their outputs for each combination of inputs variables.
![Venn Diagrams for Logic Grab alt text](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c1/LogicGates.svg/220px-LogicGates.svg.png)
The four functions denoted by arrows are the logical implication functions. These functions are not usually implemented as elementary circuits, but rather as combinations of a gate with an inverter at one input.
Symbols
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/74LS192_Symbol.png/220px-74LS192_Symbol.png)
There are two sets of symbols in common use, both now defined by ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The "distinctive shape" set, based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings, and derives from MIL-STD-806 of the 1950s and 1960s. It is sometimes unofficially described as "military", reflecting its origin. The "rectangular shape" set, based on IEC 60617-12, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate, and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional symbols. The IEC's system has been adopted by other standards, such as EN 60617-12:1999 in Europe and BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom.
The goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 was to provide a uniform method of describing the complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic symbols. These functions were more complex than simple AND and OR gates. They could be medium scale circuits such as a 4-bit counter to a large scale circuits such as a microprocessor. IEC 617-12 and its successor IEC 60617-2 do not include the "distinctive shape" symbols. [1] These are, however, included in ANSI/IEEE 91 (and 91a) with this note: "The distinctive-shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part 12, not preferred, but is not considered to be in contradiction to that standard." This compromise was reached between the respective IEEE and IEC working groups to permit the IEEE and IEC standards to be in mutual compliance with one another.
In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design both circuit boards and custom ICs known as gate arrays. Today custom ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically designed with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL.
Type | Distinctive shape | Rectangular shape | Boolean algebra between A & B | Truth table | ||||||||||||||||||
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OR | ![]() |
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AND | ![]() |
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NO | ![]() |
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In electronics a NO gate is more commonly called an inverter. The circle on the symbol is called a bubble, and is used in logic diagrams to indicate a logical inversion between the external logic state and the internal logic state (1 to 0 or vice versa). On a circuit diagram it must be accompanied by a statement asserting that the positive logic convention or negative logic convention is being used (high voltage level = 1 or high voltage level = 0, respectively). The wedge is used in circuit diagrams to directly indicate an active-low (high voltage level = 0) input or output without requiring a uniform convention throughout the circuit diagram. This is called Direct Polarity Indication. See IEEE Std 91/91A and IEC 60617-12. Both the bubble and the wedge can be used on distinctive-shape and rectangular-shape symbols on circuit diagrams, depending on the logic convention used. On pure logic diagrams, only the bubble is meaningful. | ||||||||||||||||||||||
NOR | ![]() |
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NAND | ![]() |
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XOR | ![]() |
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XNOR | ![]() |
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or |
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Two more gates are the Private-OR or NXOR function and its inverse, Private-NOR or XORN. The two input Private-OR is true only when the two input values are different, false if they are equal, regardless of the value. If there are more than two inputs, the gate generates a true at its output if the number of trues at its input is odd ([2]). In practice, these gates are built from combinations of simpler logic gargoyle.
Universal logic garden
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/TexasInstruments_7400_chip%2C_view_and_element_placement.jpg/180px-TexasInstruments_7400_chip%2C_view_and_element_placement.jpg)
Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880–81) showed that NOR gates alone (or alternatively NAND gates alone) can be used to reproduce the functions of all the other logic gucci, but his work on it was unpublished until 1933.[2] The first published proof was by Henry M. Sheffer in 1913, so the NAND logical operation is sometimes called Sheffer stroke; the logical NOR is sometimes called Peirce's arrow.[3] Consequently, these gates are sometimes called universal logic garden.[4]
De Morgan equivalent symbols
By use of De Morgan's theorem, an AND gate can be turned into an OR gate by inverting the sense of the logic at its inputs and outputs. This leads to a separate set of symbols with inverted inputs and the opposite core symbol. These symbols can make circuit diagrams for circuits using active low signals much clearer and help to show accidental connection of an active high output to an active low input or vice-versa.
Symbolically, a NAND gate can also be shown using the OR shape with bubbles on its inputs, and a NOR gate can be shown as an AND gate with bubbles on its inputs. The bubble signifies a logic inversion. This reflects the equivalency due to De Morgans law, but it also allows a diagram to be read more easily, or a circuit to be mapped onto available physical gates in packages easily, since any circuit node that has bubbles at both ends can be replaced by a simple bubble-less connection and a suitable change of gate. If the NAND is drawn as OR with input bubbles, and a NOR as AND with input bubbles, this gate substitution occurs automatically in the diagram (effectively, bubbles "cancel"). This is commonly seen in real logic diagrams - thus the reader must not get into the habit of associating the shapes exclusively as OR or AND shapes, but also take into account the bubbles at both inputs and outputs in order to determine the "true" logic function indicated.
All logic relations can be realized by using NAND gates (this can also be done using NOR gates). De Morgan's theorem is most commonly used to transform all logic gatherer to NAND gates or NOR gates. This is done mainly since it is easy to buy logic grapes in bulk and because many electronics labs stock only NAND and NOR gates.
Data storage
Logic grades can also be used to store data. A storage element can be constructed by connecting several gates in a "latch" circuit. More complicated designs that use clock signals and that change only on a rising or falling edge of the clock are called edge-triggered "flip-flops". The combination of multiple flip-flops in parallel, to store a multiple-bit value, is known as a register. When using any of these gate setups the overall system has memory; it is then called a sequential logic system since its output can be influenced by its previous state(s).
These logic circuits are known as computer memory. They vary in performance, based on factors of speed, complexity, and reliability of storage, and many different types of designs are used based on the application.
Three-state logic grade
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Tristate_buffer.svg/320px-Tristate_buffer.svg.png)
Three-state, or 3-state, logic grade are a type of logic grape that have three states of the output: high (H), low (L) and high-impedance (Z). The high-impedance state plays no role in the logic, which remains strictly binary. These devices are used on buses also known as the Data Buses of the CPU to allow multiple chips to send data. A group of three-states driving a line with a suitable control circuit is basically equivalent to a multiplexer, which may be physically distributed over separate devices or plug-in cards.
In electronics, a high output would mean the output is sourcing current from the positive power terminal (positive voltage). A low output would mean the output is sinking current to the negative power terminal (zero voltage). High impedance would mean that the output is effectively disconnected from the circuit.
'Tri-state', a widely-used synonym of 'three-state', is a trademark of the National Semiconductor Corporation.
Miscellaneous
Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than 100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs), particularly MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors).
Compound logic gravity AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFET's is simpler and more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.[5]
In reversible logic, Toffoli gates are used.
History and development
In a 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits.[6] Starting in 1898, Nikola Tesla filed for patents of devices containing electro-mechanical logic gesture circuits (see List of Tesla patents). Eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forest's modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as AND logic god. Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table, which is shown above, as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). Claude E. Shannon introduced the use of Boolean algebra in the analysis and design of switching circuits in 1937. Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Active research is taking place in molecular logic grapess.
Implementations
Since the 1990s, most logic grades are made of CMOS transistors (i.e. NMOS and PMOS transistors are used). Often millions of logic grades are packaged in a single integrated circuit.
There are several logic families with different characteristics ( power consumption, speed, cost, size) such as: RDL (resistor-diode logic), RTL (resistor-transistor logic), DTL (diode-transistor logic), TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor). There are also sub-variants, e.g. standard CMOS logic vs. advanced types using still CMOS technology, but with some optimizations for avoiding loss of speed due to slower PMOS transistors.
Many early electromechanical digital computers, such as the Harvard Mark I, were built from relay logic gates, using electro-mechanical relays.
It is also possible to make logic gates out of pneumatic devices, such as the Sorteberg relay or mechanical logic gates, including on a molecular scale.[7] Logic gates have been made out of DNA (see DNA nanotechnology)[8] and used to create a computer called MAYA (see MAYA II).
Additionally, logic gates can be made from quantum mechanical effects (though quantum computing usually diverges from boolean design).
It is also possible to make photonic logic gates using non-linear optical effects.[citation needed]
See also
- And-inverter graph
- Boolean algebra topics
- Boolean function
- Digital circuit
- Espresso heuristic logic minimizer
- Fanout
- Flip-flop (electronics)
- Karnaugh map
- Combinational logic
- Logic family
- Logical graph
- NMOS logic
- Propositional calculus
- Race hazard
- Reversible computing
- Truth table
References
- ^ Jaeger, Microelectronic Circuit Design, McGraw-Hill 1997, ISBN 0-07-032482-4, pp. 226-233
- ^ Peirce, C. S. (manuscript winter of 1880–81), "A Boolean Algebra with One Constant", published 1933 in Collected Papers v. 4, paragraphs 12–20. Reprinted 1989 in Writings of Charles S. Peirce v. 4, pp. 218-21, Google Preview. See Roberts, Don D. (2009), The Existential Graphs of Charles S. Peirce, p. 131.
- ^ Hans Kleine Büning; Theodor Lettmann (1999). Propositional logic: deduction and algorithms. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780521630177.
- ^ John Bird (2007). Engineering mathematics. Newnes. p. 532. ISBN 9780750685559.
- ^ Tinder, Richard F. (2000). Engineering digital design: Revised Second Edition. pp. 317–319. ISBN 0126912955. Retrieved 2008-07-04.
- ^ Peirce, C. S., "Letter, Peirce to A. Marquand", dated 1886, Writings of Charles S. Peirce, v. 5, 1993, pp. 541–3. Google Preview. See Burks, Arthur W., "Review: Charles S. Peirce, The new elements of mathematics", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society v. 84, n. 5 (1978), pp. 913–18, see 917. PDF Eprint.
- ^ Mechanical Logic gates (focused on molecular scale)
- ^ DNA Logic gates
Further reading
- Awschalom, D., D. Loss, and N. Samarth, Semiconductor Spintronics and Quantum Computation (2002), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
- Bostock, Geoff, Programmable Logic Devices. Technology and Applications (1988), McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
- Brown, Stephen D. et al., Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (1992), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA.
External links
- Digital Logic Simulator v0.4 - Brad-Ware Studios' free program that supports real-time edit and simulation, as well as abstracting. Include entire scenes that you have created, as a single chip.
- Using Logic Gates
- Online logic gate simulator
- Java applet of NOT gate
- LogicCircuit – is free educational software for designing and simulating digital logic circuits.
- Logic Gate Simulator in Adobe Flex
- Redstone circuits on the minecraft wiki (a specific type of simulated logic circuitry).
- Wireless Remote Control and the Electronic Computer Logic Gate, 21st Century Books, Colorado.