Rochester Castle

The inside of Rochester Castle showing the keep. Rochester Cathedral is in the background, protruding above the castle's outer wall.

Rochester Castle stands on the east bank of the River Medway in Rochester, Kent. It is one of the best-preserved castles of its kind in the UK. During the medieval period it helped protect England's south-east coast from invasion. The first castle at Rochester was founded in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest. It was given to Bishop Odo by his half-brother, William the Conqueror. During the Rebellion of 1088 over the succession to the English throne, Odo supported Robert Curthose, the Conqueror's eldest son, over William Rufus. It was during this conflict that the castle first saw military action; Odo had made Rochester a headquarters for the rebellion and as a result the city and castle were besieged. After garrison capitulated, this first castle was abandoned.

Between 1087 and 1089 the king asked Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, to build a new stone castle at Rochester. The work cost Gundulf £60 and marks the current extent of the castle. Though much altered through the centuries, some parts of Gundulf's work survive. Located along the River Medway and Watling Street, Rochester was a strategically important royal castle. In 1127 King Henry I granted the castle to the Bishops of Canterbury in perpetuity. William de Corbeil built the massive stone tower or keep that still dominates the castle today.

Throughout the 12th century the castle remained in the custody of the archbishops, however during the reign of King John the situation changed. During the First Barons' War (1215–1217) the castle was captured from Archbishop Stephen Langton by baronial forces and was held against the king. John laid siege to the castle and the investment was one of the largest in England up to that point. Just over seven weeks into the siege the garrison surrendered. Although the castle had been greatly damaged, with breaches in the outers walls and one corner of the keep collapsed, it was hunger that eventually forced their hand. The castle did not stay under John's control for long and in 1216 it was captured by the French Prince Louis who was the new leader of the baronial faction. War ended in 1217 with the death of John and the succession of his son as King Henry III. The castle was taken under direct royal control.

Rochester was besieged for the third time in 1264 during the Second Barons' War (1264–1267). The castle's royal constable, Roger de Leybourne, held Rochester in support of the king. Rebel armies led by Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare entered the city and set about trying to capture the castle. Again the castle resisted, though this time with a different outcome. After a week, the rebel armies raised the siege in the face of relief from Henry himself. Although the castle did not surrender, it suffered extensive damaged which was not repaired until the following century. The castle is protected as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Monument.

Early history

Rochester Castle from the banks of the Medway. The 12th century keep is on the right, and Rochester Cathedral can be seen over the ruined walls of the castle.

Castles were imported to England by the Normans in the 11th century and their construction in the wake of the conquest of 1066 helped the Normans secure their new territory. Rochester was an important city, built on the site of a Roman town at the junction of the River Medway and Watling Street, a Roman road. It has long been assumed that this first castle was located next to the river, just outside the south-west corner of the town walls. The conjectural site of the early castle later became known as "Boley Hill". Archaeologist Tom McNeill has suggested that these earliest castles may have been purely military in character, built to contain a large number of troops in hostile territory.

Rochester Castle was indirectly referred to in the Domesday Book of 1086; it records that the Bishop of Rochester was given land in Aylesford valued at 17s and 4d in exchange for the land on which the castle was built. One of 48 castles mentioned in the survey, Rochester is the only case where landowners were compensated for land taken off them to build a castle although there are other instances where property was demolished to make way for the new development, such as at Norwich. From the 11th century the castle-guard was a feudal obligation in England. This often took the form of knights garrisoning castles for their lords for a set period. There is no comprehensive list of which castles were owed service in this form, but the military historian Cathcart King notes that they seem to have been predominantly high-status castles. Rochester's castle-guard consisted of 60 knights fees, marking it as a particularly important fortification.

Bishop Odo, here seen in the Bayeux Tapestry, held Rochester as one of the headquarters of a revolt against King William II in 1088.

It was probably William the Conqueror who gave the city and its castle to Bishop Odo of Bayeux, the king's half brother. On William's death in September 1087 his territories were divided between his two sons. Robert, the elder son, inherited the title of Duke of Normandy and William Rufus became King of England. A significant number of Norman barons objected to the splitting of Normandy and England, and Bishop Odo supported Robert's claim to the English throne. As well as Odo several others, including the earls of Northumberland and Shrewsbury and the Bishop of Coutances, came out in support of Robert. Odo fortified Rochester Castle and it became one of the headquarters of the rebellion. Its position in Kent meant it was suited to act as a base for raids on London and could harry William's forces in the county. William set off from London and marched towards Rochester to deal with the threat. Before he arrived news reached the king that Odo had gone to Pevensey Castle which was under Robert, Count of Mortain's control. William turned away from Rochester and seized Pevensey. The captured Odo was forced to swear to surrender Rochester to William's men. The king despatched a force with Odo in tow to demand Rochester's surrender. Instead of yielding, the garrison sallied and captured the entire party. In response William laid siege to the city and castle. Contemporary chronicler Orderic Vitalis recorded that the siege began in May 1088. Two siege-castles were built to cut off the city's supply lines and to protect the besiegers from sorties. Conditions within the city were dire: disease was rampant, exacerbated by the heat and flies. In the end the garrison capitulated and terms agreed. Odo, Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Robert de Belleme, son of the Earl of Shrewsbury, were allowed to march away with their weapons and horses but their estates in England were confiscated. This marked the end of the castle's role in the rebellion and it is likely the motte-and-bailey was abandoned shortly afterwards. The siege-castles were abandoned after the conclusion of the siege and have since vanished.

After the abandonment of Rochester's first castle it was replaced by another on the current site, in the south-west corner of the town walls. Founded between 1087 and 1089, some parts of the castle survive although it has been much altered by use and reuse in subsequent centuries. William the Conqueror had granted Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, the manor of Haddenham in Buckinghamshire – which as of the Domesday Survey had an annual income of £40 – for the duration of his life. In turn, the archbishop had granted the manor to Rochester's monks, so on the Conqueror's death Lanfranc and Gundulf, who was appointed Bishop of Rochester in 1077, had to appeal for reconfirmation of the original grant from the new king. William II demanded £100 in exchange for confirmation of the grant. The two bishops felt such a sum was beyond their means and sought a compromise. Instead it was agreed that Gundulf would build a new stone castle at Rochester. Initially the two bishops were concerned this would cost even more than the king's original request and that they would be responsible for the castle's upkeep. However Henry, Earl of Warwick, convinced them that £40 would be sufficient to build a castle suitable for the king and that following its completion it would be handed over to someone else. The work ended up costing £60, all of which was personally funded by Gundulf. Gundulf was a skilled architect and supervised the construction of the Tower of London's eponymous White Tower on behalf of William to Conqueror. Gundulf's castle was adjacent to Rochester Cathedral. When castles were positioned close churches or cathedrals it suggested a link between the two, in this case both were owned by the Bishop of Rochester. Often the same craftsmen and architects would work on these closely related buildings, leading to similarities in some of their features. Along with Durham and Old Sarum, Rochester is one of the best examples of a closely linked castle and religious building.

Map of medieval Rochester from E. A. Freeman's The Reign of William Rufus 1882. The city was surrounded by a wall, and the castle founded by Gundulf was in the south-west corner. Although construction did not start until around 1127, it shows the great tower built by William de Corbeil.

In 1127 King Henry I granted Rochester Castle to the Archbishop of Canterbury, William de Corbeil, and his successors in perpetuity. He was also given permission to build "a fortification or tower within the castle and keep and hold it forever". Corbeil is responsible for building the great tower or keep that still stands today, albeit in an altered state. The 12th century saw many castles in England rebuilt in stone, an advancement in sophistication of design and technology. Although Rocehster had already been given a stone curtain by Gundulf, the keep dates from this period. Although most castles were built by secular nobles, the work by Corbeil and his predecessor Gundulf provides examples of the role of the church in castle building. The role of the keep was manifold. It visually dominated the rest of the castle, towering above its outer walls, and acted as a residence containing the castle's best accommodation. A sturdy fortification, it could also serve as a stronghold in the event of military action. Such was the importance of the keep as a symbol of Rochester it was depicted on the town's seal in the 13th century.

It is likely that after the keep was built there was no further building work in the 12th century, although the structure was maintained. Continuous records of royal expenditure begin from the reign of Henry II. And these Pipe Rolls detail sums spent on the castle's upkeep. Though held by the Archbishops of Canterbury under the king, the monarch was still responsible for financially supporting the castle. During the 12th century, these were generally small sums but in 1172–1173 more than £100 was spent on the castle, coinciding with the rebellion of Henry II's sons. Following the fall of Normandy in 1204 to the French forces of King Philip II, King John increased his expenditure on the castles in south-east England in preparation for a possible invasion. Amongst these was Rochester and in 1206 John spent £115 on the castle's ditches, keep, and other structures. Under England's Angevin kings, royal castles in south-east England were invested in, protecting the country from invasion; Rochester was one of the most important.

King John

Custody of Rochester Castle remained with the Archbishops of Canterbury until the end of the 12th century. Despite ascending to the throne in 1199 King John did not confirm Herbert Walter as the castle's custodian until July 1202. It may have been the case that John wished to regain direct control of what was an important castle. The crisis of John's rule began in 1212 wth the uncovering of a plot to overthrow him. Defeat at the Battle of Bouvines in July 1214 marked the end of John's ambitions to retake Normandy and exacerbated the situation in England. He returned to England in October and a few months later barons in the north of England were actively challenging his rule. A group of barons renounced their feudal ties to John in May 1215 and led to the outbreak of war. John persuaded Stephen Langton, the new archbishop, to cede control of Rochester Castle to a royal constable, Reginald de Cornhill. Under the agreement, when the terms expired in Easter 1215 the castle was to revert to the control of the archbishops. The period was later extended to Easter 1216. Letters patent dated 25 May 1215 requested that other royal constables would take over from Cornhill. The castle would still be returned to the archbishop when the agreement expired or if peace was restored to the kingdom before Easter 1216. In the meantime, control reverted to Langton who John asked to hold the castle "in such a way that by it no ill or harm shall come to us or our kingdom".

An early 13th-century drawing by Matthew Paris showing contemporary warfare, including the use of castles, crossbowmen and mounted knights

The chroniclers record that the rebels garrisoned the castle with between 95 and 140 knights supported by bowmen and sergeants amongst others.

John met the rebel barons at Runnymede and on 19 June 1216 they renewed their vows of fealty. A peace treaty, which later became known as Magna Carta, was agreed. Shortly after the treaty the agreement between John and Langton to appoint a royal constable in charge of Rochester Castle was dissolved, returning control to the archbishop. The peace did not last and civil war broke out. A group of rebels headed to Rochester to hold the city against John. The events surrounding the castle's change of control to the rebels is unclear, but contemporary chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall recorded that the king demanded Langton hand over the castle to royal control and the archbishop refused. Although Langton held out against the king's demands, the rebels feared he would eventually cave to pressure and seized control of Rochester Castle for themselves. According to Ralph of Coggeshall, this was done with the consent of the castle's constable, Reginald de Cornhill, who seems to have switched allegiance from the king to the archbishop since John appointed him as royal constable of the castle. Langton left the country that same month, leaving the castle in the hands of the king's enemies. In a letter that year to justiciar Hubert de Burgh John expressed his anger towards Langton, calling him "a notorious traitor to us, since he did not render our castle of Rochester to us in our so great need." After this point, Rochester Castle was no longer considered to be in the perpetual custody of the archbishops of Rochester.

At the time John was in south-east England recruiting mercenaries in preparation for his war with the barons. Rochester blocked the direct route to London, which was also held by the rebels. According to Roger of Wendover, the rebels forces at Rochester were led by William d'Aubigny, lord of Belvoir. Estimates of the size of Rochester's garrison vary, with the chronicler's figures ranging from 95 to 140 knights, supports by crossbowmen, sergeants, and others. Hearing the news that Rochester was in enemy hands, John immediately rode to Rochester and arrived on 13 October. Royal forces had arrived ahead of John and on 11 October had entered the city, taking it by surprise and laying siege to the castle. Rochester bridge was pulled down to prevent the arrival of a relief force from London. The siege that followed was the largest in England up to that point, and would take nearly two months.

Boley Hill to the south of the castle may have been used as John's headquarters during the siege. According to the Barnwell chronicler five siege engines were built, and hurled a barrage of stones at the castle's wall day and night. These were supported by missiles from smaller bows and cross-bows. Though the Barnwell chronicler claimed they smashed a hole in the castle's outer walls, Roger of Wendover asserted they were ineffective and that instead John turned to other methods to breach the defences. A letter dated 14 October indicates John was preparing to undermine the castle's walls. He wrote to Canterbury, asking for the production "by day and night of as many picks as you are able" to be sent to Rochester. On 26 October a relief force of 700 horse was sent from London. They got as far as Dartford before turning back, perhaps because they heard the king was advancing to meet them.

When the castle's outer walls were eventually breached, the defenders retreated to the relative safety of the keep. It too resisted the efforts of the siege engines, and once again John turned to mining to bring down the walls. The mine was dug beneath the south-east corner of the keep. A letter sent from Rochester on 25 November offers insight into the methods of medieval siegecraft. John ordered Hugh de Burgh to "send to us with all speed by day and night forty of the fattest pigs of the sort least good for eating to bring fire beneath the tower". The wooden props supporting the tunnel dug beneath the keep were set alight to collapse the mine, which it was hoped would then bring down the wall above it. The act was successful and one corner of the keep collapsed. Still the garrison held out and sought safety behind the stone partition or cross-wall in the keep, abandoning half the building. The Barnwell chronicler remarked that "for such was the structure of the stronghold that a very strong wall separated the half that had fallen from the other".

Conditions within the keep worsened by the day and the garrison were reduced to eating horse flesh. In an attempt to reduce the demand on limited provisions, some members were sent out of the keep. First amongst them were those least capable of fighting. Some sources record that they had their hands and feet amputated by the besiegers. Eventually the entire garrison was forced to surrender and were taken captive. Initially John wanted to execute all the defenders as was the custom of the time when a garrison had forced a long and bloody conflict. Savaric de Mauléon, one of John's captains, persuaded the king otherwise, concerned that similar treatment would be shown to royal garrisons by the rebels. Only one person was executed: a crossbowman who had previously been in the service of the king since childhood was hanged. Many of the rebels were imprisoned, sent to royal castles such as Corfe for safe-keeping. Of the siege the Barnwell chronicler wrote "Our age has not known a siege so hard pressed nor so strongly resisted ... Afterwards few cared to put their trust in castles". Following the castle's fall, it was slighted (damaged so it would be undefendable) to serve as an example to others who would stand against King John. Prince Louis of France, son of Philip II, was invited by the barons to become the new leader of the rebellion and become king in the event of their victory. In 1216 he arrived in England. He captured Rochester Castle, however it is not known how as no documentary evidence recording the event survives.

Henry III

The round tower (centre), in contrast to two of the square towers (right and left). The round touwer was a replacement built by Hery III to repair the damage done to the keep by King John's mine.

The civil war came to an end in 1217 with John's death and the succession of his nine-year-old son, Henry, supported by the barons. With no prospect of becoming King of England, Louis returned to France. It was in this context that Rochester Castle was returned to royal control. Given the damage incurred during John's siege, the castle was in dire need of repairs. Between 1217 and 1237 around £680 were spent on repairs, of which £530 was taken up by work on the keep. In 1225 and 1226 the town walls were enhanced by the addition of a ditch at the cost of £300. The new ditch enclosed Boley Hill, possibly to deny the position to future aggressors who might attack the castle. Repairs began with the outer curtain wall. At the same time a chapel was built within the castle. In 1226 the castle's hall, buttery, and dispensary were repaired. Work probably did not begin on the keep until 1226. It was mostly repaired by 1227, but work continued on it until 1232. In 1230–1231, a stone wall dividing the castle's enclosure into two parts was built; it no longer survives. While attention was paid to making the castle a working fortification, Henry III also funded construction of residential and other buildings. In 1244, £132 was spent on building a second chapel next to the royal apartments. Stables and an almonry were added in 1248. The main gatehouse was rebuilt between 1249 and 1250 at a cost of over £120. Further repairs were carried out on the keep in 1256, this time costing more than £120. Later in the decade attention was paid to the castle's defences, possibly in response to Henry III's worsening relations with his barons.

Interior of Rochester Castle. The dark opening on the left is a well. During the 1264 siege the garrison again retreated to the keep.

Henry III's reign was in crisis in 1258, having recently suffered defeat in Wales, agricultural problems leading to a famine, and worsening relations with the pope. Discontent amongst England's magnates led to Henry promising reform, but under continued pressure his authority disintegrated. A royal council of fifteen magnates was formed in June that year, and the rule of the country transferred from the king to the council. With foreign help Henry's reign was restored in 1261 as the council were reluctant to start a civil war. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester raised rebellion. In 1264 civil war broke out between the baronial forces led by de Montfort and supporters of the king. Rochester's constable in 1264, Roger de Leybourne, held the castle in support of the Henry. A baronial army led by Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Hertford, laid siege to the castle on 17 April that year. Having marched from the earl's castle to Tonbridge the army attacked from the Rochester side of the river, either the south or west. While the army advanced towards the city the royalist garrison set alight the suburbs. The king's hall within the castle was also burned down, although it is unclear why. An army under Simon de Montfort marched from London with the intention of attacking the city from another direction. The earl's first two attempts to cross the Medway was fought back, however he was successful on 18 April, Good Friday. His method is uncertain, although it involved a fire-ship. The smoke from the ship may have been used as cover for the rebel forces, or the ship may have been used burn the bridge while the army travelled by water. In a co-ordinated attack that had been pre-arranged, the armies of de Montfort and de Clare attacked the city. They entered Rochester in the evening; that night the cathedral was raided. The following day the rebels captured the castle's outer enclosure and the royal garrison retreated to the keep. Because the next day was Easter Sunday there was no fighting, however hostilities resumed on the Monday. Siege engines were set up and targeted the keep. As in 1215 the keep proved resistance to missiles, and after a week had not succumbed. According to one contemporary source, the besiegers were about to dig a mine beneath the tower, however the siege was abandoned on 26 April when the earls received news of a relief force led by Henry III and his son, Prince Edward.

Later history

Though the garrison had held out within the keep, the rest of the castle had incurred severe damage. Despite this no attempt was made to make repairs until the reign of Edward III (1327–1377). It was noted in 1275 that the castle's constables had not only failed to make any effort to repair the structure but had caused further damage: they stole stone from the castle for reuse elsewhere. In 1281 John of Cobham, the constable, was granted permission to pull down the castle's hall and chambers which had been left as burnt out ruins after the 1264 siege. Numerous surveys in the following century bear testament to the castle's sorry state and follow its steady decline. A survey from 1340 estimated that repairs would cost around £600, however another conducted 23 years later stated that it would cost £3,333 6s 8d. Natural weathering worsened the condition of the castle, and in 1362 a "great wind" damaged the structure. By 1369 few of the castle's buildings still stood: the keep, gatehouses, a hall, kitchen, and stable were all that survived, and even then in a state of ruin. Although it too was in desperate need of repair, the keep was still in use and was the centre of the domestic life at the castle.

Between May 1367 and September 1370 repairs costing £2,262 were carried out at Rochester Castle. Records show that sections of the curtain wall were repaired and two mural towers built, one of them replacing a tower on the same site. The towers were positioned north-east of the keep and still stand. Although more work was undertaken between 1370 and 1377, the year of Edward's death, what it consisted of is unknown. Late in the Hundred Years War, Richard II invested heavily in the defences of Rochester in response to French invasion threats. He built a new bridge at Rochester, which included a removable central span, and created a new bastion at the North East Corner of the castle, guarding the river crossing.

Engraving of the castle's overgrown ruins by J. LeKeux in 1828

The 15th century Wars of the Roses were not fought in Kent, so the castle was spared. It was briefly taken by Wyatt's men during his futile uprising of 1554. But with the invention of gunpowder and introduction of cannon, this form of castle was no longer so secure. It became expensive to maintain so fell into disrepair.

It was given into private hands by Queen Elizabeth the first, and repurchased by the corporation of Rochester during the late 19th century. In the intervening years a fire had gutted the interior of the castle, and a large amount of the internal stone had been removed. Even after the castle came back into public hands, much of the North East Bastion was destroyed by Royal Engineers creating a new path from the bridge.

Rochester Castle became less effective after the invention of gunpowder because the walls could have been easily destroyed. Chatham's Dockyard then took over as the major military focus in the area.

By the 17th century many castles were in a state of ruin, and Rochester was amongst those in need of repair.

Charles Dickens lived in Rochester and included the castle ruins in The Pickwick Papers and The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Through the words of one of his characters, Dickens described the castle as a "glorious pile – frowning wall – tottering arches – dark nooks – crumbling stones". Since the Victorian period Rochester Castle Gardens have been an important leisure area for Rochester. They were a popular promenade, they have hosted a bandstand, and have become a centre point for festivals and summer concerts. Many of England's historic buildings, particularly ruins, have acquired myths and legends, and some are rumoured to be haunted. Rochester is no exception, and is reportedly haunted by a white lady, said to be Lady Blanche de Warenne, who was killed by an arrow through her heart during fighting at the castle. Dickens is also said to haunt the moat on Christmas Eve.

In 1960 excavations were carried out on Boley Hill with the intention of uncovering its origin, however the issue was not resolved.

The castle is a Scheduled Monument, which means it is a "nationally important" historic building and archaeological site which has been given protection against unauthorised change. It is also a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. The castle is now maintained by English Heritage and is open to the public. The wooden flooring in the centre of the keep is gone, but many of the passageways and spiral staircases within the thickness of the walls are still usable. Decorative chevrons ornament the archways and the water well in the cross-wall is clearly visible.

Architecture

Rochester's keep with the stone curtain wall and two towers in front.

Little is known about the first castle at Rochester as it has since vanished, and even the exact site is uncertain. It most likely took the form of a motte-and-bailey castle, with a mound and an outer enclosure defended by timber and earthen banks. Boley Hill has been suggested as the site of the first castle, however there are competing theories relating to the hill. It may have been a siege castle since abandoned, like those documented in the 1088 siege, or an outwork reinforcing the castle's defences. Boley Hill is a natural outcrop of rock, and could have acted as a natural motte.

The castle built by Bishop Gundulf in the late 12th century was surrounded by a stone wall. Situated in the south-west corner of the city, the castle used the remains of the Roman town walls as foundations. The circuit was studded with at least one tower which was replaced in the 14th century. The original gateway was radically altered in the 13th or 14th century. From across the River Medway, the twin landmarks of Rochester's castle and cathedral would have dominated the landscape in the medieval period, symbolic of the authority of the church and nobility in the period.

According to military historian Allen Brown Rochester's keep is "among the finest and oldest in all England". Dating from the second quarter of the 13th century, it is Rochester Castle's dominant feature. It had a square plan, and measured 70 by 70 feet (21 by 21 m) internally. The keep was built close to the curtain wall in the castle's southern corner, using mostly local Kentish Ragstone, although the material used to face the keep was imported from Normandy. Caen stone as used at Rochester was also imported for the Tower of London's White Tower in the 11th century. The tops of the turrets rise 125 feet (38 m) above the ground, 12 ft above the battlements. Below the latter are rectangular holes, marking where wooden hoarding would have been attached. Though 12 ft thick at the base, the walls of the keep taper and are 10 ft at the top. Keeps were traditionally built with an entrance at first-floor level, and Rochester's follows this pattern.

The stone-built keeps of the 11th century generally had simple plans, with few rooms and an uncomplicated layout. Rochester's keep bears testament to a developing complexity, and provides an early example of dividing the keep into separate areas for the lord and his retinue.

A plan of Rochester Castle and keep

In the north western corner of the bailey is a sally port or strong gate that flanked and commanded the ancient bridge. From there the western curtain wall faces the river and in places is nearly 40 ft (12 m) high. The curtain wall then curves round to a circular bastion in the south eastern corner of the bailey, (it is close to the the point where the enceinte is closest to the new rounded tower of the keep). A section of curtain wall connected to a flat sided bastion north of the round bastion. From there another section of curtain wall joined to another flat sided bastion nor-nor-west of its neighbour. These three towers and the two pieces of curtain wall faced the cathedral and still exist. From the second of the two flat faced bastions the wall gradually curved to the north west and joined to the castle's barbican (this appears to have had circular bastions at the entrance, with a curtain between containing a narrow passage through which the castle was usually approached). From the barbarian the curtain wall curved sharply west and joined to the sally port in the north western corner of the bailey. The bailey enclosed by these walls and towers is about 4 acres (1.6 ha). The bastion and much of the curtain walls either side of it, were demolished in the 19th century when the bailey was turned into a leisure garden.

See also

• Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
• List of castles in England

References

Notes

Bibliography

• Brown, Reginald Allen (1969), Rochester Castle, London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office
• Brown, Reginald Allen (1976) [1954], Allen Brown's English Castles, The Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-069-8
• Brown, Reginald Allen (2003), "Royal castle-building in England 1156–1216", in Robert Liddiard (ed.), Anglo-Norman Castles, Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 133–178, ISBN 978-0851159041
• Coulson, Charles (2003a), Castles in Medieval Society: Fortresses in England, France, and Ireland in the Central Middle Ages, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-927363-4
• Coulson, Charles (2003b), "The Castles of The Anarchy", in Robert Liddiard (ed.), Anglo-Norman Castles, Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 179–202, ISBN 978-0851159041
• Creighton, Oliver (2002), Castles and Landscapes: Power, Community and Fortification in Medieval England, Equinox, ISBN 9781904768678
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• Duesbury, Henry (1854). British Archaeological Association (ed.). "Proceedings of the Congress: Monday July 25:Talk on the examination of Rochester Castle". The journal of the British Archaeological Association. 9. British Archaeological Association: 339–348. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harfield, C. G. (1991), "A Hand-list of Castles Recorded in the Domesday Book", English Historical Review, 106: 371–392
• Gravett, Christopher (2009). English Castles 1200-1300. Fortress Series (illustrated ed.). Osprey Publishing. p. 56. ISBN 1846033748. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Holt, James Clarke (1992), Magna Carta (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521277785
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• King, David James Cathcart (1988), The Castle in England and Wales: an Interpretative History, London: Croom Helm, ISBN 0-918400-08-2
• Liddiard, Robert (2003), "Introduction", in Robert Liddiard (ed.), Anglo-Norman Castles, Woodbridge: Boydell Press, pp. 1–22, ISBN 978-0851159041
• Lyon, Bryce Dale (1980) [1960], A Constitutional and Legal History of Medieval England (2nd ed.), New York: Norton, ISBN 0-393-95132-4
• Marsden, Simon; Horsler, Val; Kelleher, Susan (2006), This Spectred Isle: A Journey Through Haunted England, London: English Heritage, ISBN 978-1905624171
• McNeill, Tom (1992), English Heritage Book of Castles, London: English Heritage and B. T. Batsford, ISBN 0-7134-7025-9
• Parnell, Geoffrey (1993), The Tower of London, Batsford, ISBN 978-0713468649
• Ridgeway, H. W. (2004), "Henry III (1207–1272)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography ((subscription or UK public library membership required)), Oxford: Oxford University Press {{citation}}: External link in |format= (help)
• The Paul Drury Partnership (2009), Conservation Plan Part 1: Understanding and Significance (PDF), Teddington: The Paul Drury Partnership {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
• Thompson, Michael (1987), The Decline of the Castle, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-32194-8
• Turner, Ralph V. (2009), King John: England's Evil King?, Stroud: History Press, ISBN 9780752448503
• Warren, W. Lewis. (1991), King John, London: Methuen, ISBN 0413455203

Further reading

• Ayers, T.; Tatton-Brown, T. (eds) (2006), Medieval art, architecture and archaeology at Rochester, Leeds: British Archaeological Association and Maney Publishing, ISBN 978-1904350767 {{citation}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
• Rowlands, I. W. (1989), "King John, Stephen Langton and Rochester Castle, 1213–15", Studies in medieval history presented to R. Allen Brown, pp. 267–280 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)

External links

• Rochester Castle on English Heritage website
• Bibliography of sources relating to Rochester Castle
• Photos, 3d model and floor plans