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The orgasm gap, or pleasure gap, is a social phenomenon referring to the general disparity between heterosexual men and women in terms of sexual satisfaction—more specifically, the unequal frequency in achievement of orgasm during sexual encounters. Currently, across every demographic that has been studied, women report the lowest frequency of reaching orgasm during sexual encounters with men. Researchers speculate there are multiple factors that may contribute to the orgasm gap.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10] Orgasm gap researcher Laurie Mintz argues that the primary reason for this form of gender inequality is due to "our cultural ignorance of the clitoris" and that it is commonplace to "mislabel women's genitals by the one part (the vagina) that gives men, but not women, reliable orgasms."^[11]^[5]

History of research

The 1953 Kinsey Report, titled Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, made several observations including 'differences in frequencies of orgasm' between unmarried American females (223 orgasms on average before marriage, with 36% having never had an orgasm before marriage; 10% of all women in the study said they had never orgasmed at any period in their lives) and males (1,523 orgasms on average before marriage; all males in the study reported having had an orgasm before marrying).^[12]^[13] By 1990, authors were referring to Kinsey et al.'s observed gender disparity in sexual experiences as the "orgasm gap", citing the premarital orgasm rates per gender as an example.^[14] Meanwhile, Masters & Johnson (1966) suggested that lesbian women had more orgasms than heterosexual women.^[15]

A 1994 study by Laumann et al. of sexual practices in the United States found that 75.0% of men and 28.6% of women always had orgasms with their spouse, while 40.2% of men and 79.7% of women thought their spouse always orgasmed during sex.^[16] These rates were different in non-marital straight relationships (cohabitational, long-term and short-term heterosexual relationships), with rates increasing to 80.5% for men and 43.0% for women orgasming during sex with their short-term partners, and 69.3% for men and 82.6% for women thinking their short-term partners always orgasmed.^[16] The first of those statistics was labelled 'the 29/75 gap' in an August 1997 Weekly World News article, and taken as representative of the 'orgasm gap'.^[17] U.S. feminist writers Marcelle Karp & Debbie Stoller (1999) also loosely referred to the 75/29 statistic as evidence that the orgasm gap existed, and to argue that more efforts were needed to sexually emancipate women, because 'there are a whole lot of women who most certainly aren't having fun yet'.^[18]

Contributing factors

Sexual behaviour and reaching orgasm

Data of sexual behaviour research in the 20th and early 21st century indicated very few women (less than 30%)^[13]^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24] reached orgasm during mixed-sex sexual activity, whereas men (over 90%)^[22]^[23]^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28] usually did. During partnered sexual encounters, rates of orgasm for men do not vary depending on one's sexual orientation; though, lesbians or women who have sex with women reported significantly higher rates of orgasm (up to 83%)^[29]^[1]^[30] than women who had sex with men. This variance among women was influenced by the prioritization of clitoral stimulation during women-only sexual encounters.^[1]^[30] It has been determined that for women, clitoral stimulation is the most reliable method of reaching orgasm,^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34] with nearly all women requiring some form of clitoral stimulation in order to achieve orgasm.^[27]^[26]^[19]^[24]^[10] Conversely, PIV (penis-in-vagina) intercourse does not reliably result in orgasm for women.^[27]^[35] Studies have found that women pretended ("faked") to orgasm during PIV intercourse more often than during any other sexual practice.^[36]^[37]^[38]

Feminist researchers have credited the "phallocentricity" (that is: giving the penis a central role)^[39] of mixed-sex partnering as a main contributor to the orgasm gap; multiple studies of sexual behaviour and attitudes have concluded that mixed-sex partners prioritized PIV penetration and men's satisfaction.^[27]^[40]^[41]^[1]^[42]^[23]^[43]^[44]^[45] In turn, this contributed to the faking orgasm behaviour being more prevalent in women than in men: as there appeared to be 'a sexual script in which women should orgasm before men, and men are responsible for women's orgasms', a woman could feel pressured to fake an orgasm before her male partner orgasmed in order to please her male partner and avoid hurting his feelings.^[36]

Studies of heterosexual college hook-up culture found "both men and women reported that men are typically not concerned with women's pleasure in hookups, but both reported that men are very attentive to women's pleasure in relationships".^[40] Results showed that women were less likely to reach orgasm during casual sex than during relationship sex; this difference was attributed to an overall increased presence of focused clitoral stimulation and men's willingness to perform cunnilingus during relationship sex.^[46]^[40] However, one study found that cunnilingus was not significantly more likely to occur in relationships than in hookups.^[47]

Scientific sexism

In a 2006 study, biology and sex researcher Elisabeth Lloyd reviewed the most prominent studies of female sexuality and argued that the female orgasm has been impacted by the questionable scientific integrity of each of these studies as they are consistently predicated on androcentric assumptions about the female body.^[48] Feminist scholar Angela Towne (2019) posited that the "historically androcentric focus on the vaginal canal as the main female sex organ, has helped create a gender-based orgasm gap during partnered sex".^[10]

In the 20th and early 21st century, scholars have highlighted that within dictionaries,^[49] anatomy texts,^[50] sex education texts,^[51] and gynaecology texts,^[52] the vagina was most often cited as being the primary female erogenous zone, whereas the clitoris had been omitted or only briefly described.^[23] In a 2005 meta-analysis of anatomy literature intended for medical professionals, O'Connell et al. determined that "the typical anatomical textbook description lacks detail, describes male anatomy fully and only gives the differences between male and female anatomy rather than a full description of female anatomy".^[53] O'Connell et al remark that "the anatomy of the clitoris has not been stable with time, as would be expected. To a major extent its study has been dominated by social factors. The clitoris is a structure about which few diagrams and minimal description are provided… Specific study of anatomical textbooks across the 20th century revealed that details from genital diagrams presented early in the century were subsequently omitted from later texts. These examples, particularly with the backdrop of the clitoris being discovered and rediscovered, indicate that the evolution of female anatomy across the 20th century occurred as a result of active deletion rather than simple omission in the interests of brevity".^[53] Gabriele Falloppio described the clitoris in 1561, highlighting the fact that "modern anatomists have entirely neglected it", yet his findings were consistently dismissed by his colleagues; Andreas Vesalius stated it was a "new and useless part" that had no function in "healthy women".^[53] Later anatomists, including Regnier de Graaf in the 17th century, also provided a full description of the clitoris, though their work was also either ignored or suppressed.^[53] Not until 1998 was mainstream science willing to acknowledge the importance of the clitoris due to O'Connell et al's breakthrough work revealing the true extent of the clitoris' size and complexity through MRI technology.^[54]

Socialization

Assertiveness and communication

In general, women have been associated with having a decreased degree of sexual assertiveness in comparison to men, and this has often been found to have been at the detriment of women's own sexual satisfaction.^[46]^[55]^[56]^[57] It has been proposed that for women, masturbation is an effective means to discover one's own preferences in order to be able to communicate the same to sexual partners.^[58]^[59] Communication in which one is able to articulate their sexual needs or interests, along with having a partner receptive to the same, are both instrumental aspects of satisfying sexual relationships.^[60]^[1]^[11]^[5]^[2] There is a tendency for open sexual communication to be low or lacking between couples who experience difficulty with reaching orgasm.^[61]^[1] Women who have difficulty reaching orgasm, report that they may hide this from their partner by incorrectly communicating their sexual satisfaction, and that this is most commonly completed through the performance of a fake orgasm.^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65]^[37]^[38] Furthermore, it has been noted that "women view their own orgasm as important for their partners (i.e., to communicate their enjoyment of a sexual experience) more so than for their own pleasure"^[66] and that the existing pressure to produce an orgasm for male partners during sexual activity is a barrier for them to actually orgasm.^[67]^[44]^[68]^[69]

Sex education

In the early 21st century, the aspect of pleasure was generally overlooked within sex education that was presented to youth; instead, the vast majority of content was primarily concerned with reproductive health, centering on preventative measures for unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.^[70] Physiological processes of pleasure (such as arousal, (male) orgasm, or (male) ejaculation) were typically only referenced in a reproductive context, rather than for the sole purpose of pleasure. The main reason for this was that these components of pleasure were deemed necessary of male bodies in order to conceive.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73] On the other hand, areas of the body conducive to female pleasure – particularly the clitoris, perineal or urethral sponges (which may include the G-spot) – are not linked to conception and therefore have been largely disregarded from sex education curricula and instead, only female internal organs were taught in the classroom setting.^[9]^[70]^[74] Scholars have claimed that "the lack of a cohesive understanding of pleasure makes pursuing implementation of pleasure overwhelming and inaccessible for educators and may account for why academic research on pleasure has failed to make its way into the practical world of sex education classrooms".^[75]^[70] Sexual self-exploration was also a commonly unaddressed topic within the classroom setting, yet "past research indicates that including masturbation in sexuality education can improve attitudes toward masturbation and debunk myths or false beliefs".^[76] One study of university students' sexual knowledge found that more than 60% of students held the false belief that the clitoris is located within the vaginal canal.^[23]

Media and pornography

In the early 21st century, heterosexual activity depicted in mainstream media and pornography was predominantly centred on male pleasure and often included sexual myths which could influence the construction of one's understanding of what constitutes normal/typical sexual behaviour. The female orgasm, as portrayed by media and pornography, regularly promoted a false image in which women always orgasmed from penetration alone. Researchers concluded that this misrepresentation could contribute to unrealistic expectations for what methods of sexual activity are necessary for women to orgasm in real-life encounters.^[77]^[9]^[5]^[2]

The desire of female porn viewers to see what they want to see, including the female performers on screen having real orgasms instead of fake ones, was one of the main factors leading to the rise of feminist pornography in the 1980s and 1990s in North America and Europe.^[78]^: 13–15 According to feminist pornographer Tristan Taormino (2013), 'in feminist porn, female desire, pleasure, and orgasm are prioritized and celebrated. When the sex on screen represents the experience of the performers (no one is "faking" anything), and that experience is set up to be positive and supportive, sex is presented as joyful, fun, safe, mutual, and satisfying.'^[78]^: 297

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^ Goldey, Katherine L.; Posh, Amanda R.; Bell, Sarah N.; van Anders, Sari M. (2016-03-23). "Defining Pleasure: A Focus Group Study of Solitary and Partnered Sexual Pleasure in Queer and Heterosexual Women". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 45 (8): 2137–2154. doi:10.1007/s10508-016-0704-8. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 27007471. S2CID 22125468.
^ Nicolson, Paula; Burr, Jennifer (2003). "What is 'normal' about women's (hetero)sexual desire and orgasm?: a report of an in-depth interview study". Social Science & Medicine. 57 (9): 1735–1745. doi:10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00012-1. ISSN 0277-9536. PMID 12948581.
^ O'Neill, Rachel (2014-10-31). "Performing sex: the making and unmaking of women's erotic lives Breanne Fahs" (PDF). Feminism & Psychology. 24 (4): 552–556. doi:10.1177/0959353514533864. ISSN 0959-3535. S2CID 147538635.
^ Braun, Virginia; Gavey, Nicola; McPhillips, Kathryn (2003). "The 'Fair Deal'? Unpacking Accounts of Reciprocity in Heterosex". Sexualities. 6 (2): 237–261. doi:10.1177/1363460703006002005. ISSN 1363-4607. S2CID 144614304.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Koepsel, Erica R. (2016-07-02). "The Power in Pleasure: Practical Implementation of Pleasure in Sex Education Classrooms". American Journal of Sexuality Education. 11 (3): 205–265. doi:10.1080/15546128.2016.1209451. ISSN 1554-6128. S2CID 152162850.
^ Pastor, S. K. (2009). Education for sexual intimacy and agency. In N. Worcester & M. H. Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 440–446). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
^ Fine, Michelle (1988). "Sexuality, Schooling, and Adolescent Females: The Missing Discourse of Desire". Harvard Educational Review. 58 (1): 29–54. doi:10.17763/haer.58.1.u0468k1v2n2n8242. ISSN 0017-8055.
^ "Harmful to minors: the perils of protecting children from sex". Choice Reviews Online. 40 (2): 40–1237–40-1237. 2002-10-01. doi:10.5860/choice.40-1237. ISSN 0009-4978.
^ Johnson, J. (2009). Exposed at last: The truth about your clitoris. In N.Worcester &M. H.Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 454–456). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
^ Allen, Louisa; Carmody, Moira (2012-05-08). "'Pleasure has no passport': re-visiting the potential of pleasure in sexuality education". Sex Education. 12 (4): 455–468. doi:10.1080/14681811.2012.677208. ISSN 1468-1811. S2CID 143595332.
^ Kaestle, Christine E.; Allen, Katherine R. (2011). "The Role of Masturbation in Healthy Sexual Development: Perceptions of Young Adults". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 40 (5): 983–994. doi:10.1007/s10508-010-9722-0. ISSN 0004-0002. PMID 21293916. S2CID 23353776.
^ Orenstein, Peggy (2016-03-19). "Opinion | When Did Porn Become Sex Ed?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-11-28.
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 == History of research ==
-The 1953 [[Kinsey Reports|Kinsey Report]], titled ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', made several observations including 'differences in frequencies of orgasm' between unmarried [[United States|American]] females (223 orgasms on average before marriage, with 36% having never had an orgasm before marriage; 10% of all women in the study said they had never orgasmed at any period in their lives) and males (1523 orgasms on average before marriage; all males in the study reported having had an orgasm before marrying).<ref name="Kinsey 1953">{{Cite book |last1=Kinsey |first1=Alfred C. |last2=Pomeroy |first2=Wardell B. |last3=Martin |first3=Clyde E. |last4=Gebhard |first4=Paul H. |date=22 May 1998 |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1998 reprint) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHWHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA519 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=519–520 |isbn=9780253019240 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Passmore"/> By 1990, authors were referring to Kinsey et al.'s observed gender disparity in sexual experiences as the "orgasm gap", citing the premarital orgasm rates per gender as an example.<ref name="Eysenck">{{Cite book |last=Eysenck |first=Michael W. |date=1990 |title=Happiness: Facts and Myths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fmh9AAAAMAAJ&q=%22orgasm+gap%22 |location= |publisher=Erlbaum |page=33 |isbn=9780863771347 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref> Meanwhile, Masters & Johnson (1966) suggested that lesbian women had more orgasms than heterosexual women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/who-is-most-likely-to-reach-orgasm-during-sex/|title=Who's most likely to reach the "big O"?|work=CBS News |language=en-US|access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
+The 1953 [[Kinsey Reports|Kinsey Report]], titled ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', made several observations including 'differences in frequencies of orgasm' between unmarried [[United States|American]] females (223 orgasms on average before marriage, with 36% having never had an orgasm before marriage; 10% of all women in the study said they had never orgasmed at any period in their lives) and males (1,523 orgasms on average before marriage; all males in the study reported having had an orgasm before marrying).<ref name="Kinsey 1953">{{Cite book |last1=Kinsey |first1=Alfred C. |last2=Pomeroy |first2=Wardell B. |last3=Martin |first3=Clyde E. |last4=Gebhard |first4=Paul H. |date=22 May 1998 |title=Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1998 reprint) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHWHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA519 |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |page=519–520 |isbn=9780253019240 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="Passmore"/> By 1990, authors were referring to Kinsey et al.'s observed gender disparity in sexual experiences as the "orgasm gap", citing the premarital orgasm rates per gender as an example.<ref name="Eysenck">{{Cite book |last=Eysenck |first=Michael W. |date=1990 |title=Happiness: Facts and Myths |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fmh9AAAAMAAJ&q=%22orgasm+gap%22 |location= |publisher=Erlbaum |page=33 |isbn=9780863771347 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref> Meanwhile, Masters & Johnson (1966) suggested that lesbian women had more orgasms than heterosexual women.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/who-is-most-likely-to-reach-orgasm-during-sex/|title=Who's most likely to reach the "big O"?|work=CBS News |language=en-US|access-date=2 February 2022}}</ref>
 A 1994 study by Laumann et al. of sexual practices in the United States found that 75.0% of men and 28.6% of women always had orgasms with their spouse, while 40.2% of men and 79.7% of women thought their spouse always orgasmed during sex.<ref name="Laumann">{{cite book  |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=72AHO0rE2HoC&pg=PA130 |title=The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States |last1=Laumann |first1=Edward O. |page=130 |isbn=9780226470207 |date=15 December 2000 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref> These rates were different in non-marital straight relationships (cohabitational, long-term and short-term heterosexual relationships), with rates increasing to 80.5% for men and 43.0% for women orgasming during sex with their short-term partners, and 69.3% for men and 82.6% for women thinking their short-term partners always orgasmed.<ref name="Laumann"/> The first of those statistics was labelled 'the 29/75 gap' in an August 1997 ''[[Weekly World News]]'' article, and taken as representative of the 'orgasm gap'.<ref name="WWN">{{Cite journal |last= |first= |date=26 August 1997 |title=Sex and the American Woman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fPEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA40 |journal=[[Weekly World News]] |publisher=[[A360media|American Media]] |volume=18 |issue=48 |pages=40–41 |doi= |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref> U.S. feminist writers [[Marcelle Karp]] & [[Debbie Stoller]] (1999) also loosely referred to the 75/29 statistic as evidence that the orgasm gap existed, and to argue that more efforts were needed to sexually emancipate women, because 'there are a whole lot of women who most certainly ''aren't'' having fun yet'.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Karp |first1=Marcelle |last2=Stoller |first2=Debbie |date=1999 |title=The Bust Guide to the New Girl Order |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3xhHJLcnaUcC&pg=PT83 |location=New York |publisher=Penguin |page=83–84 |isbn=9781101503171 |access-date=1 February 2022}}</ref>
@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 == Contributing factors ==
 === Sexual behaviour and reaching orgasm ===
-Data of sexual behaviour research indicates very few women (less than 30%)<ref name="Passmore">{{Cite journal|last=Passmore|first=R.|date=1954-01-22|title=SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE. By A. C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy, C. E. Martin and P. M. Gebhard. Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company. 1953. Pp. xxx + 842. £2, 10s|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology and Cognate Medical Sciences|volume=39|issue=1|pages=73–74|doi=10.1113/expphysiol.1954.sp001049|issn=0033-5541}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Walters|first1=Lynda Henley|last2=Hite|first2=Shere|date=1978|title=The Hite Report. A Nationwide Study on Female Sexuality|journal=The Family Coordinator|volume=27|issue=4|pages=481|doi=10.2307/583460|issn=0014-7214|jstor=583460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fahs|first=Breanne|date=2011-02-28|title=A Review of "The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution"|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=37|issue=2|pages=161–163|doi=10.1080/0092623x.2011.548688|s2cid=142666827|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dawood|first1=Khytam|last2=Kirk|first2=Katherine M.|last3=Bailey|first3=J. Michael|last4=Andrews|first4=Paul W.|last5=Martin|first5=Nicholas G.|date=2005-02-01|title=Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Frequency of Orgasm in Women|journal=Twin Research and Human Genetics|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1375/twin.8.1.27|pmid=15836807|s2cid=233356759|issn=1832-4274}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=Claire M. A.|last2=Fisher|first2=William A.|date=2013-12-18|title="Did You Come?" A Qualitative Exploration of Gender Differences in Beliefs, Experiences, and Concerns Regarding Female Orgasm Occurrence During Heterosexual Sexual Interactions|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=51|issue=6|pages=616–631|doi=10.1080/00224499.2013.838934|pmid=24350619|s2cid=32960347|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":72"/><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Eschler|first=Lara|date=2004|title=The physiology of the female orgasm as a proximate mechanism|journal=Sexualities, Evolution & Gender|volume=6|issue=2–3|pages=171–194|doi=10.1080/14616660412331330875|issn=1479-2508}}</ref> reach orgasm during mixed-sex sexual activity, whereas men (over 90%)<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":72"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hite|first=S.|date=1982|title=Misunderstandings about Male Sexuality|journal=Sexologies|volume=17|pages=S23–S24|doi=10.1016/s1158-1360(08)72567-2|issn=1158-1360}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Psychiatry : diagnosis & therapy|date=1993|publisher=Appleton & Lange|others=Flaherty, Joseph A., Davis, John M. (John Marcell), 1933-, Janicak, Philip G.|isbn=0-8385-1267-4|edition=2nd|location=Norwalk, Conn.|oclc=26860842|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatrydiagno00flah}}</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reece|first1=Michael|last2=Herbenick|first2=Debby|last3=Schick|first3=Vanessa|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|last6=Fortenberry|first6=J. Dennis|date=2010|title=Background and Considerations on the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) from the Investigators|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=7|pages=243–245|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02038.x|pmid=21029382|issn=1743-6095}}</ref> usually do. During partnered sexual encounters, rates of orgasm for men do not vary depending on one's [[sexual orientation]]; though, [[lesbian]]s or [[women who have sex with women]] report significantly higher rates of orgasm (up to 83%)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coleman|first1=Emily M.|last2=Hoon|first2=Peter W.|last3=Hoon|first3=Emily F.|date=1983|title=Arousability and sexual satisfaction in lesbian and heterosexual women|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=58–73|doi=10.1080/00224498309551169|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Garcia|first1=Justin R.|last2=Lloyd|first2=Elisabeth A.|last3=Wallen|first3=Kim|last4=Fisher|first4=Helen E.|date=2014-11-01|title=Variation in Orgasm Occurrence by Sexual Orientation in a Sample of U.S. Singles|url=https://www.jsm.jsexmed.org/article/S1743-6095(15)30602-0/abstract|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|language=en|volume=11|issue=11|pages=2645–2652|doi=10.1111/jsm.12669|issn=1743-6095|pmc=6035747|pmid=25131299}}</ref> than those who have sex with men. This variance among women is influenced by the prioritization of clitoral stimulation during women only sexual encounters.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":3" /> It has been determined that for women, clitoral stimulation is the most reliable method of reaching orgasm,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schober|first1=Justine M.|last2=Meyer-Bahlburg|first2=Heino F.L.|last3=Ransley|first3=Philip G.|date=2004|title=Self-assessment of genital anatomy, sexual sensitivity and function in women: implications for genitoplasty|journal=BJU International|volume=94|issue=4|pages=589–594|doi=10.1111/j.1464-410x.2004.05006.x|pmid=15329118|issn=1464-4096|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Singer|first1=Josephine|last2=Singer|first2=Irving|date=1972|title=Types of female orgasm|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=255–267|doi=10.1080/00224497209550761|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Barry Komisaruk|author2-link=Beverly Whipple|last1=Komisaruk|first1=Barry R.|last2=Whipple|first2=Beverly|last3=Crawford|first3=Audrita|last4=Grimes|first4=Sherry|last5=Liu|first5=Wen-Ching|last6=Kalnin|first6=Andrew|last7=Mosier|first7=Kristine|date=2004|title=Brain activation during vaginocervical self-stimulation and orgasm in women with complete spinal cord injury: fMRI evidence of mediation by the Vagus nerves|journal=Brain Research|volume=1024|issue=1–2|pages=77–88|doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2004.07.029|pmid=15451368|s2cid=9202518|issn=0006-8993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bentler|first1=P. M.|last2=Peeler|first2=William H.|date=1979|title=Models of female orgasm|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=8|issue=5|pages=405–423|doi=10.1007/bf01541197|pmid=496622|s2cid=42722867|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> with nearly all women requiring some form of clitoral stimulation in order to achieve orgasm.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":21" /> Conversely, PIV (penis-in-vagina) intercourse does not reliably result in orgasm for women.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Richters|first1=Juliet|last2=de Visser|first2=Richard|last3=Rissel|first3=Chris|last4=Smith|first4=Anthony|date=2006|title=Sexual practices at last heterosexual encounter and occurrence of orgasm in a national survey|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=43|issue=3|pages=217–226|doi=10.1080/00224490609552320|pmid=17599244|s2cid=7469378|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldey|first1=Katherine L.|last2=Posh|first2=Amanda R.|last3=Bell|first3=Sarah N.|last4=van Anders|first4=Sari M.|date=2016|title=Defining Pleasure: A Focus Group Study of Solitary and Partnered Sexual Pleasure in Queer and Heterosexual Women|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=45|issue=8|pages=2137–2154|doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0704-8|pmid=27007471|s2cid=22125468|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> Studies have found that women report [[fake orgasm|pretending ("faking") to orgasm]] during PIV intercourse more than during any other sexual practice.<ref name="Muehlenhard">{{Cite journal|last1=Muehlenhard|first1=Charlene L.|last2=Shippee|first2=Sheena K.|date=2010-11-02|title=Men's and Women's Reports of Pretending Orgasm|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=47|issue=6|pages=552–567|doi=10.1080/00224490903171794|pmid=19707929|s2cid=29485759|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Jern|first1=Patrick|last2=Hakala|first2=Outi|last3=Kärnä|first3=Antti|last4=Gunst|first4=Annika|date=2018-04-01|title=A Longitudinal Assessment of Associations Between Women's Tendency to Pretend Orgasm, Orgasm Function, and Intercourse-Related Pain in Different Partner Relationship Constellations|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=47|issue=3|pages=671–679|doi=10.1007/s10508-017-1117-z|pmid=29209890|s2cid=3672588|issn=1573-2800}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Fahs|first=Breanne|date=2014-06-18|title=Coming to power: women's fake orgasms and best orgasm experiences illuminate the failures of (hetero)sex and the pleasures of connection|journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality|volume=16|issue=8|pages=974–988|doi=10.1080/13691058.2014.924557|pmid=24939172|s2cid=9555766|issn=1369-1058}}</ref>
+Data of sexual behaviour research in the 20th and early 21st century indicated very few women (less than 30%)<ref name="Passmore">{{Cite journal|last=Passmore|first=R.|date=1954-01-22|title=SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE HUMAN FEMALE. By A. C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy, C. E. Martin and P. M. Gebhard. Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Company. 1953. Pp. xxx + 842. £2, 10s|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology and Cognate Medical Sciences|volume=39|issue=1|pages=73–74|doi=10.1113/expphysiol.1954.sp001049|issn=0033-5541}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Walters|first1=Lynda Henley|last2=Hite|first2=Shere|date=1978|title=The Hite Report. A Nationwide Study on Female Sexuality|journal=The Family Coordinator|volume=27|issue=4|pages=481|doi=10.2307/583460|issn=0014-7214|jstor=583460}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fahs|first=Breanne|date=2011-02-28|title=A Review of "The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution"|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=37|issue=2|pages=161–163|doi=10.1080/0092623x.2011.548688|s2cid=142666827|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dawood|first1=Khytam|last2=Kirk|first2=Katherine M.|last3=Bailey|first3=J. Michael|last4=Andrews|first4=Paul W.|last5=Martin|first5=Nicholas G.|date=2005-02-01|title=Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Frequency of Orgasm in Women|journal=Twin Research and Human Genetics|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=27–33|doi=10.1375/twin.8.1.27|pmid=15836807|s2cid=233356759|issn=1832-4274}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=Claire M. A.|last2=Fisher|first2=William A.|date=2013-12-18|title="Did You Come?" A Qualitative Exploration of Gender Differences in Beliefs, Experiences, and Concerns Regarding Female Orgasm Occurrence During Heterosexual Sexual Interactions|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=51|issue=6|pages=616–631|doi=10.1080/00224499.2013.838934|pmid=24350619|s2cid=32960347|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":72"/><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Eschler|first=Lara|date=2004|title=The physiology of the female orgasm as a proximate mechanism|journal=Sexualities, Evolution & Gender|volume=6|issue=2–3|pages=171–194|doi=10.1080/14616660412331330875|issn=1479-2508}}</ref> reached orgasm during mixed-sex sexual activity, whereas men (over 90%)<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":72"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hite|first=S.|date=1982|title=Misunderstandings about Male Sexuality|journal=Sexologies|volume=17|pages=S23–S24|doi=10.1016/s1158-1360(08)72567-2|issn=1158-1360}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title=Psychiatry : diagnosis & therapy|date=1993|publisher=Appleton & Lange|others=Flaherty, Joseph A., Davis, John M. (John Marcell), 1933-, Janicak, Philip G.|isbn=0-8385-1267-4|edition=2nd|location=Norwalk, Conn.|oclc=26860842|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatrydiagno00flah}}</ref><ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reece|first1=Michael|last2=Herbenick|first2=Debby|last3=Schick|first3=Vanessa|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|last6=Fortenberry|first6=J. Dennis|date=2010|title=Background and Considerations on the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) from the Investigators|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=7|pages=243–245|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02038.x|pmid=21029382|issn=1743-6095}}</ref> usually did. During partnered sexual encounters, rates of orgasm for men do not vary depending on one's [[sexual orientation]]; though, [[lesbian]]s or [[women who have sex with women]] reported significantly higher rates of orgasm (up to 83%)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coleman|first1=Emily M.|last2=Hoon|first2=Peter W.|last3=Hoon|first3=Emily F.|date=1983|title=Arousability and sexual satisfaction in lesbian and heterosexual women|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=19|issue=1|pages=58–73|doi=10.1080/00224498309551169|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Garcia|first1=Justin R.|last2=Lloyd|first2=Elisabeth A.|last3=Wallen|first3=Kim|last4=Fisher|first4=Helen E.|date=2014-11-01|title=Variation in Orgasm Occurrence by Sexual Orientation in a Sample of U.S. Singles|url=https://www.jsm.jsexmed.org/article/S1743-6095(15)30602-0/abstract|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|language=en|volume=11|issue=11|pages=2645–2652|doi=10.1111/jsm.12669|issn=1743-6095|pmc=6035747|pmid=25131299}}</ref> than women who had sex with men. This variance among women was influenced by the prioritization of clitoral stimulation during women-only sexual encounters.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":3" /> It has been determined that for women, clitoral stimulation is the most reliable method of reaching orgasm,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schober|first1=Justine M.|last2=Meyer-Bahlburg|first2=Heino F.L.|last3=Ransley|first3=Philip G.|date=2004|title=Self-assessment of genital anatomy, sexual sensitivity and function in women: implications for genitoplasty|journal=BJU International|volume=94|issue=4|pages=589–594|doi=10.1111/j.1464-410x.2004.05006.x|pmid=15329118|issn=1464-4096|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Singer|first1=Josephine|last2=Singer|first2=Irving|date=1972|title=Types of female orgasm|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=8|issue=4|pages=255–267|doi=10.1080/00224497209550761|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author1-link=Barry Komisaruk|author2-link=Beverly Whipple|last1=Komisaruk|first1=Barry R.|last2=Whipple|first2=Beverly|last3=Crawford|first3=Audrita|last4=Grimes|first4=Sherry|last5=Liu|first5=Wen-Ching|last6=Kalnin|first6=Andrew|last7=Mosier|first7=Kristine|date=2004|title=Brain activation during vaginocervical self-stimulation and orgasm in women with complete spinal cord injury: fMRI evidence of mediation by the Vagus nerves|journal=Brain Research|volume=1024|issue=1–2|pages=77–88|doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2004.07.029|pmid=15451368|s2cid=9202518|issn=0006-8993}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bentler|first1=P. M.|last2=Peeler|first2=William H.|date=1979|title=Models of female orgasm|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=8|issue=5|pages=405–423|doi=10.1007/bf01541197|pmid=496622|s2cid=42722867|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> with nearly all women requiring some form of clitoral stimulation in order to achieve orgasm.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":22" /><ref name=":21" /> Conversely, PIV ([[human penis|penis]]-in-vagina) intercourse does not reliably result in orgasm for women.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last1=Richters|first1=Juliet|last2=de Visser|first2=Richard|last3=Rissel|first3=Chris|last4=Smith|first4=Anthony|date=2006|title=Sexual practices at last heterosexual encounter and occurrence of orgasm in a national survey|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=43|issue=3|pages=217–226|doi=10.1080/00224490609552320|pmid=17599244|s2cid=7469378|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldey|first1=Katherine L.|last2=Posh|first2=Amanda R.|last3=Bell|first3=Sarah N.|last4=van Anders|first4=Sari M.|date=2016|title=Defining Pleasure: A Focus Group Study of Solitary and Partnered Sexual Pleasure in Queer and Heterosexual Women|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=45|issue=8|pages=2137–2154|doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0704-8|pmid=27007471|s2cid=22125468|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> Studies have found that women [[fake orgasm|pretended ("faked") to orgasm]] during PIV intercourse more often than during any other sexual practice.<ref name="Muehlenhard">{{Cite journal|last1=Muehlenhard|first1=Charlene L.|last2=Shippee|first2=Sheena K.|date=2010-11-02|title=Men's and Women's Reports of Pretending Orgasm|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=47|issue=6|pages=552–567|doi=10.1080/00224490903171794|pmid=19707929|s2cid=29485759|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last1=Jern|first1=Patrick|last2=Hakala|first2=Outi|last3=Kärnä|first3=Antti|last4=Gunst|first4=Annika|date=2018-04-01|title=A Longitudinal Assessment of Associations Between Women's Tendency to Pretend Orgasm, Orgasm Function, and Intercourse-Related Pain in Different Partner Relationship Constellations|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=47|issue=3|pages=671–679|doi=10.1007/s10508-017-1117-z|pmid=29209890|s2cid=3672588|issn=1573-2800}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Fahs|first=Breanne|date=2014-06-18|title=Coming to power: women's fake orgasms and best orgasm experiences illuminate the failures of (hetero)sex and the pleasures of connection|journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality|volume=16|issue=8|pages=974–988|doi=10.1080/13691058.2014.924557|pmid=24939172|s2cid=9555766|issn=1369-1058}}</ref>
-Feminist researchers credit the "phallocentricity"<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Willis|first1=Malachi|last2=Jozkowski|first2=Kristen N.|last3=Lo|first3=Wen-Juo|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|date=February 20, 2018|title=Are Women's Orgasms Hindered by Phallocentric Imperatives?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=47|issue=6|pages=1565–1576|doi=10.1007/s10508-018-1149-z|pmid=29464449|s2cid=3398241|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> of mixed-sex partnering as being a main contributor to the orgasm gap; multiple studies of sexual behaviour and attitudes have concluded that mixed-sex partners prioritize PIV penetration and men's satisfaction.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=England|first2=Paula|last3=Fogarty|first3=Alison C. K.|date=2012|title=Accounting for Women's Orgasm and Sexual Enjoyment in College Hookups and Relationships|journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=77|issue=3|pages=435–462|doi=10.1177/0003122412445802|s2cid=146476877|issn=0003-1224|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2910813a35bc31879cc3395e29f0bbefd4295885}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herbenick|first1=Debby|last2=Reece|first2=Michael|last3=Schick|first3=Vanessa|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|last6=Fortenberry|first6=J. Dennis|date=2010|title=An Event-Level Analysis of the Sexual Characteristics and Composition Among Adults Ages 18 to 59: Results from a National Probability Sample in the United States|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=7|pages=346–361|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02020.x|pmid=21029390|issn=1743-6095}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pitts|first1=Marian|last2=Rahman|first2=Qazi|date=2001|title=Which behaviors constitute 'having sex' among university students in the UK?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=30|issue=2|pages=169–176|doi=10.1023/a:1002777201416|pmid=11329726|s2cid=45644182|issn=0004-0002}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last1=Wade|first1=Lisa D.|last2=Kremer|first2=Emily C.|last3=Brown|first3=Jessica|date=2005-12-05|title=The Incidental Orgasm: The Presence of Clitoral Knowledge and the Absence of Orgasm for Women|journal=Women & Health|volume=42|issue=1|pages=117–138|doi=10.1300/J013v42n01_07|issn=0363-0242|pmid=16418125|s2cid=39966093|url=https://osf.io/9e6cq}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McPhillips|first1=Kathryn|last2=Braun|first2=Virginia|last3=Gavey|first3=Nicola|date=2001-03-01|title=Defining (Hetero)Sex: How imperative is the "coital imperative"?|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=24|issue=2|pages=229–240|doi=10.1016/S0277-5395(01)00160-1|issn=0277-5395}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Opperman|first1=Emily|last2=Braun|first2=Virginia|last3=Clarke|first3=Victoria|last4=Rogers|first4=Cassandra|date=2014|title="It Feels So Good It Almost Hurts": Young Adults' Experiences of Orgasm and Sexual Pleasure|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=51|issue=5|pages=503–515|doi=10.1080/00224499.2012.753982|pmid=23631739|s2cid=32043319|issn=0022-4499|url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/18096/2/Opperman%20Braun%20Clarke%20Rogers%20Orgasm%20JSR.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Gavey|first2=Nicola|last3=McPhillips|first3=Kathryn|date=May 1, 2003|title=The 'Fair Deal'? Unpacking Accounts of Reciprocity in Heterosex|journal=Sexualities|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=237–261|doi=10.1177/1363460703006002005|s2cid=144614304|issn=1363-4607}}</ref> In turn, this contributes to the faking orgasm behaviour being more prevalent in women than in men: as there appears to be 'a [[Sexual script theory|sexual script]] in which women should orgasm before men, and men are responsible for women's orgasms', a woman may feel pressured to fake an orgasm before her male partner orgasms in order to please her male partner and avoid hurting his feelings.<ref name="Muehlenhard"/>
+Feminist researchers have credited the "phallocentricity" (that is: giving the penis a central role)<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last1=Willis|first1=Malachi|last2=Jozkowski|first2=Kristen N.|last3=Lo|first3=Wen-Juo|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|date=February 20, 2018|title=Are Women's Orgasms Hindered by Phallocentric Imperatives?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=47|issue=6|pages=1565–1576|doi=10.1007/s10508-018-1149-z|pmid=29464449|s2cid=3398241|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> of mixed-sex partnering as a main contributor to the orgasm gap; multiple studies of sexual behaviour and attitudes have concluded that mixed-sex partners prioritized PIV penetration and men's satisfaction.<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Armstrong|first1=Elizabeth A.|last2=England|first2=Paula|last3=Fogarty|first3=Alison C. K.|date=2012|title=Accounting for Women's Orgasm and Sexual Enjoyment in College Hookups and Relationships|journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=77|issue=3|pages=435–462|doi=10.1177/0003122412445802|s2cid=146476877|issn=0003-1224|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/2910813a35bc31879cc3395e29f0bbefd4295885}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herbenick|first1=Debby|last2=Reece|first2=Michael|last3=Schick|first3=Vanessa|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|last6=Fortenberry|first6=J. Dennis|date=2010|title=An Event-Level Analysis of the Sexual Characteristics and Composition Among Adults Ages 18 to 59: Results from a National Probability Sample in the United States|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=7|pages=346–361|doi=10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02020.x|pmid=21029390|issn=1743-6095}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pitts|first1=Marian|last2=Rahman|first2=Qazi|date=2001|title=Which behaviors constitute 'having sex' among university students in the UK?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=30|issue=2|pages=169–176|doi=10.1023/a:1002777201416|pmid=11329726|s2cid=45644182|issn=0004-0002}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last1=Wade|first1=Lisa D.|last2=Kremer|first2=Emily C.|last3=Brown|first3=Jessica|date=2005-12-05|title=The Incidental Orgasm: The Presence of Clitoral Knowledge and the Absence of Orgasm for Women|journal=Women & Health|volume=42|issue=1|pages=117–138|doi=10.1300/J013v42n01_07|issn=0363-0242|pmid=16418125|s2cid=39966093|url=https://osf.io/9e6cq}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McPhillips|first1=Kathryn|last2=Braun|first2=Virginia|last3=Gavey|first3=Nicola|date=2001-03-01|title=Defining (Hetero)Sex: How imperative is the "coital imperative"?|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=24|issue=2|pages=229–240|doi=10.1016/S0277-5395(01)00160-1|issn=0277-5395}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last1=Opperman|first1=Emily|last2=Braun|first2=Virginia|last3=Clarke|first3=Victoria|last4=Rogers|first4=Cassandra|date=2014|title="It Feels So Good It Almost Hurts": Young Adults' Experiences of Orgasm and Sexual Pleasure|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|language=en|volume=51|issue=5|pages=503–515|doi=10.1080/00224499.2012.753982|pmid=23631739|s2cid=32043319|issn=0022-4499|url=http://eprints.uwe.ac.uk/18096/2/Opperman%20Braun%20Clarke%20Rogers%20Orgasm%20JSR.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Gavey|first2=Nicola|last3=McPhillips|first3=Kathryn|date=May 1, 2003|title=The 'Fair Deal'? Unpacking Accounts of Reciprocity in Heterosex|journal=Sexualities|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=237–261|doi=10.1177/1363460703006002005|s2cid=144614304|issn=1363-4607}}</ref> In turn, this contributed to the faking orgasm behaviour being more prevalent in women than in men: as there appeared to be 'a [[Sexual script theory|sexual script]] in which women should orgasm before men, and men are responsible for women's orgasms', a woman could feel pressured to fake an orgasm before her male partner orgasmed in order to please her male partner and avoid hurting his feelings.<ref name="Muehlenhard"/>
-Studies of [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] college [[hook-up culture]] found "both men and women reported that men are typically not concerned with women's pleasure in hookups, but both reported that men are very attentive to women's pleasure in relationships".<ref name=":11" /> Results show that women were less likely to reach orgasm during casual sex rather than relationship sex; this difference was attributed to an overall increased presence of focused clitoral stimulation and men's willingness to perform [[cunnilingus]] during relationship sex.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Backstrom|first1=Laura|last2=Armstrong|first2=Elizabeth A.|last3=Puentes|first3=Jennifer|date=2012|title=Women's Negotiation of Cunnilingus in College Hookups and Relationships|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=49|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1080/00224499.2011.585523|pmid=22010825|s2cid=8604210|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> However, one study found that cunnilingus was not significantly more likely to occur in relationships than in hookups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Jessica |last2=McKay |first2=Alexander |last3=Komarnicky |first3=Komarnicky |last4=Milhausen |first4=Milhausen |title=Was it good for you too?: An analysis of gender differences in oral sex practices and pleasure ratings among heterosexual Canadian university students |journal=University of Toronto Press |date=2016 |pages=25| doi=10.3138/cjhs.251-A2}}</ref>
+Studies of [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] college [[hook-up culture]] found "both men and women reported that men are typically not concerned with women's pleasure in hookups, but both reported that men are very attentive to women's pleasure in relationships".<ref name=":11" /> Results showed that women were less likely to reach orgasm during casual sex than during relationship sex; this difference was attributed to an overall increased presence of focused clitoral stimulation and men's willingness to perform [[cunnilingus]] during relationship sex.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last1=Backstrom|first1=Laura|last2=Armstrong|first2=Elizabeth A.|last3=Puentes|first3=Jennifer|date=2012|title=Women's Negotiation of Cunnilingus in College Hookups and Relationships|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=49|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.1080/00224499.2011.585523|pmid=22010825|s2cid=8604210|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref name=":11" /> However, one study found that cunnilingus was not significantly more likely to occur in relationships than in hookups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Jessica |last2=McKay |first2=Alexander |last3=Komarnicky |first3=Komarnicky |last4=Milhausen |first4=Milhausen |title=Was it good for you too?: An analysis of gender differences in oral sex practices and pleasure ratings among heterosexual Canadian university students |journal=University of Toronto Press |date=2016 |pages=25| doi=10.3138/cjhs.251-A2}}</ref>
 ===Scientific sexism===
-In a 2006 study, biology and sex researcher [[Elisabeth Lloyd]] reviewed the most prominent studies of female sexuality and argues that the female orgasm has been impacted by the questionable scientific integrity of each of these studies as they are consistently predicated on [[Androcentrism|androcentric]] assumptions about the female body.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The case of the female orgasm : bias in the science of evolution|last=Lloyd, Elisabeth Anne.|date=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02246-1|oclc=1086221162}}</ref> Feminist scholar Angela Towne (2019) posits that the "historically androcentric focus on the vaginal canal as the main female sex organ, has helped create a gender-based orgasm gap during partnered sex".<ref name=":21" />
+In a 2006 study, biology and sex researcher [[Elisabeth Lloyd]] reviewed the most prominent studies of female sexuality and argued that the female orgasm has been impacted by the questionable scientific integrity of each of these studies as they are consistently predicated on [[Androcentrism|androcentric]] assumptions about the female body.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The case of the female orgasm : bias in the science of evolution|last=Lloyd, Elisabeth Anne.|date=2006|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02246-1|oclc=1086221162}}</ref> Feminist scholar Angela Towne (2019) posited that the "historically androcentric focus on the vaginal canal as the main female sex organ, has helped create a gender-based orgasm gap during partnered sex".<ref name=":21" />
-Scholars have highlighted that within dictionaries,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Kitzinger|first2=Celia|date=2001|title=Telling it straight? Dictionary definitions of women's genitals|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|volume=5|issue=2|pages=214–232|doi=10.1111/1467-9481.00148|issn=1360-6441}}</ref> anatomy texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Lisa Jean|last2=Clarke|first2=Adele E.|date=1995|title=Clitoral Conventions and Transgressions: Graphic Representations in Anatomy Texts, c1900-1991|journal=Feminist Studies|volume=21|issue=2|pages=255|doi=10.2307/3178262|issn=0046-3663|jstor=3178262}}</ref> sex education texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ogletree|first1=Shirley Matile|last2=Ginsburg|first2=Harvey J.|date=2000|title=Kept under the hood: Neglect of the clitoris in common vernacular.|journal=Sex Roles|volume=43|issue=11/12|pages=917–926|doi=10.1023/a:1011093123517|s2cid=140325571|issn=0360-0025}}</ref> and [[gynaecology]] texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scully|first1=Diana|last2=Bart|first2=Pauline|date=1973|title=A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Orifice: Women in Gynecology Textbooks|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=78|issue=4|pages=1045–1050|doi=10.1086/225420|s2cid=31777719|issn=0002-9602}}</ref> the vagina is most often cited as being the primary female [[erogenous zone]], whereas the clitoris has been omitted or only briefly described.<ref name=":72"/> In a 2005 meta-analysis of anatomy literature intended for medical professionals, O'Connell et al. determined that "the typical anatomical textbook description lacks detail, describes male anatomy fully and only gives the differences between male and female anatomy rather than a full description of female anatomy".<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last1=O'connell Helen E.|last2=Sanjeevan Kalavampara V.|last3=Hutson John M.|date=2005-10-01|title=Anatomy of the clitoris|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=174|issue=4 Part 1|pages=1189–1195|doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd|pmid=16145367|s2cid=26109805|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/a636539b4628b63dd839c8f878b8b8bcc586dc3f}}</ref> O'Connell et al remark that "the anatomy of the clitoris has not been stable with time, as would be expected. To a major extent its study has been dominated by social factors. The clitoris is a structure about which few diagrams and minimal description are provided… Specific study of anatomical textbooks across the 20th century revealed that details from genital diagrams presented early in the century were subsequently omitted from later texts. These examples, particularly with the backdrop of the clitoris being discovered and rediscovered, indicate that the evolution of female anatomy across the 20th century occurred as a result of active deletion rather than simple omission in the interests of brevity".<ref name=":20" /> [[Gabriele Falloppio]] described the clitoris in 1561, highlighting the fact that "modern anatomists have entirely neglected it", yet his findings were consistently dismissed by his colleagues; [[Andreas Vesalius]] stated it was a "new and useless part" that had no function in "healthy women".<ref name=":20" /> Later anatomists, including [[Regnier de Graaf]] in the 17th century, also provided a full description of the clitoris, though their work was also either ignored or suppressed.<ref name=":20" /> Not until 1998 was mainstream science willing to acknowledge the importance of the clitoris due to O'Connell et al's breakthrough work revealing the true extent of the clitoris' size and complexity through MRI technology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=O'Connell|first1=Helen E.|last2=Hutson|first2=John M.|last3=Anderson|first3=Colin R.|last4=Plenter|first4=Robert J.|date=1998|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=159|issue=6|pages=1892–1897|doi=10.1016/s0022-5347(01)63188-4|issn=0022-5347|title=Anatomical Relationship Between Urethra and Clitoris}}</ref>
+In the 20th and early 21st century, scholars have highlighted that within dictionaries,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Kitzinger|first2=Celia|date=2001|title=Telling it straight? Dictionary definitions of women's genitals|journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics|volume=5|issue=2|pages=214–232|doi=10.1111/1467-9481.00148|issn=1360-6441}}</ref> anatomy texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moore|first1=Lisa Jean|last2=Clarke|first2=Adele E.|date=1995|title=Clitoral Conventions and Transgressions: Graphic Representations in Anatomy Texts, c1900-1991|journal=Feminist Studies|volume=21|issue=2|pages=255|doi=10.2307/3178262|issn=0046-3663|jstor=3178262}}</ref> sex education texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ogletree|first1=Shirley Matile|last2=Ginsburg|first2=Harvey J.|date=2000|title=Kept under the hood: Neglect of the clitoris in common vernacular.|journal=Sex Roles|volume=43|issue=11/12|pages=917–926|doi=10.1023/a:1011093123517|s2cid=140325571|issn=0360-0025}}</ref> and [[gynaecology]] texts,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scully|first1=Diana|last2=Bart|first2=Pauline|date=1973|title=A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Orifice: Women in Gynecology Textbooks|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=78|issue=4|pages=1045–1050|doi=10.1086/225420|s2cid=31777719|issn=0002-9602}}</ref> the vagina was most often cited as being the primary female [[erogenous zone]], whereas the clitoris had been omitted or only briefly described.<ref name=":72"/> In a 2005 meta-analysis of anatomy literature intended for medical professionals, O'Connell et al. determined that "the typical anatomical textbook description lacks detail, describes male anatomy fully and only gives the differences between male and female anatomy rather than a full description of female anatomy".<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last1=O'connell Helen E.|last2=Sanjeevan Kalavampara V.|last3=Hutson John M.|date=2005-10-01|title=Anatomy of the clitoris|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=174|issue=4 Part 1|pages=1189–1195|doi=10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd|pmid=16145367|s2cid=26109805|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/a636539b4628b63dd839c8f878b8b8bcc586dc3f}}</ref> O'Connell et al remark that "the anatomy of the clitoris has not been stable with time, as would be expected. To a major extent its study has been dominated by social factors. The clitoris is a structure about which few diagrams and minimal description are provided… Specific study of anatomical textbooks across the 20th century revealed that details from genital diagrams presented early in the century were subsequently omitted from later texts. These examples, particularly with the backdrop of the clitoris being discovered and rediscovered, indicate that the evolution of female anatomy across the 20th century occurred as a result of active deletion rather than simple omission in the interests of brevity".<ref name=":20" /> [[Gabriele Falloppio]] described the clitoris in 1561, highlighting the fact that "modern anatomists have entirely neglected it", yet his findings were consistently dismissed by his colleagues; [[Andreas Vesalius]] stated it was a "new and useless part" that had no function in "healthy women".<ref name=":20" /> Later anatomists, including [[Regnier de Graaf]] in the 17th century, also provided a full description of the clitoris, though their work was also either ignored or suppressed.<ref name=":20" /> Not until 1998 was mainstream science willing to acknowledge the importance of the clitoris due to O'Connell et al's breakthrough work revealing the true extent of the clitoris' size and complexity through MRI technology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=O'Connell|first1=Helen E.|last2=Hutson|first2=John M.|last3=Anderson|first3=Colin R.|last4=Plenter|first4=Robert J.|date=1998|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=159|issue=6|pages=1892–1897|doi=10.1016/s0022-5347(01)63188-4|issn=0022-5347|title=Anatomical Relationship Between Urethra and Clitoris}}</ref>
 ===Socialization===
 ==== Assertiveness and communication ====
-In general, women have been associated with having a decreased degree of sexual assertiveness in comparison to men and this is often found to be at the detriment of women's own sexual satisfaction.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sanchez|first1=Diana T.|last2=Phelan|first2=Julie E.|last3=Moss-Racusin|first3=Corinne A.|last4=Good|first4=Jessica J.|date=2012|title=The Gender Role Motivation Model of Women's Sexually Submissive Behavior and Satisfaction in Heterosexual Couples|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=38|issue=4|pages=528–539|doi=10.1177/0146167211430088|pmid=22207631|s2cid=12737995|issn=0146-1672|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/6e8fe36a027681753038ce014904022150afdf62}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haavio-Mannila|first1=Elina|last2=Kontula|first2=Osmo|date=1997|title=What increases sexual satisfaction?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=26|issue=4|pages=399–419|doi=10.1023/A:1024591318836|pmid=9251837|s2cid=4266412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herbenick|first1=Debby|last2=Fu|first2=Tsung-Chieh (Jane)|last3=Arter|first3=Jennifer|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|date=2018-02-17|title=Women's Experiences With Genital Touching, Sexual Pleasure, and Orgasm: Results From a U.S. Probability Sample of Women Ages 18 to 94|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=44|issue=2|pages=201–212|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2017.1346530|issn=0092-623X|pmid=28678639|s2cid=205472756}}</ref> It has been proposed that for women, masturbation is an effective means to discover one's own preferences in order to be able to communicate the same to sexual partners.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hogarth|first1=Harriet|last2=Ingham|first2=Roger|date=2009-11-10|title=Masturbation Among Young Women and Associations with Sexual Health: An Exploratory Study|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=46|issue=6|pages=558–567|doi=10.1080/00224490902878993|pmid=19350442|s2cid=12584876|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Laqueur|first=Thomas|date=2004|title=Solitary Sex: A Cultural History of Masturbation|journal=The American Historical Review|doi=10.1086/ahr/109.2.478|issn=1937-5239}}</ref> Communication in which one is able to articulate their sexual needs or interests, along with having a partner receptive to the same, are both instrumental aspects of satisfying sexual relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=MacNeil|first1=Sheila|last2=Byers|first2=E. Sandra|date=2005|title=Dyadic assessment of sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction in heterosexual dating couples|journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=169–181|doi=10.1177/0265407505050942|s2cid=145299560|issn=0265-4075}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> There is a tendency for open sexual communication to be low or lacking between couples who experience difficulty with reaching orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=Mary P.|last2=Strassberg|first2=Donald S.|last3=Turner|first3=Charles|date=2004|title=Communication and Associated Relationship Issues in Female Anorgasmia|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=30|issue=4|pages=263–276|doi=10.1080/00926230490422403|pmid=15205064|s2cid=30209668|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Women who have difficulty reaching orgasm, report that they may hide this from their partner by incorrectly communicating their sexual satisfaction, and that this is most commonly completed through the performance of a fake orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Celia|last2=Kippax|first2=Susan|author-link2=Susan Kippax|last3=Waldby|first3=Catherine|last4=Crawford|first4=June|date=1995|title=Faking it|url=|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=18|issue=5–6|pages=523–532|doi=10.1016/0277-5395(95)80090-c|issn=0277-5395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kingsberg|first1=Sheryl A.|last2=Tkachenko|first2=Natalia|last3=Lucas|first3=Johna|last4=Burbrink|first4=Amy|last5=Kreppner|first5=Wayne|last6=Dickstein|first6=Jodi B.|date=2013|title=Characterization of Orgasmic Difficulties by Women: Focus Group Evaluation|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=10|issue=9|pages=2242–2250|doi=10.1111/jsm.12224|pmid=23802867|issn=1743-6095}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Darling|first1=Carol A.|last2=Davdon|first2=J. Kenneth|date=1986|title=Enhancing relationships: Understanding the feminine mystique of pretending orgasm|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=12|issue=3|pages=182–196|doi=10.1080/00926238608415405|pmid=3761371|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Erin B.|last2=Fenigstein|first2=Allan|last3=Fauber|first3=Robert L.|date=2013-12-18|title=The Faking Orgasm Scale for Women: Psychometric Properties|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=43|issue=3|pages=423–435|doi=10.1007/s10508-013-0212-z|pmid=24346866|s2cid=23041015|issn=0004-0002}}</ref><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":19" /> Furthermore, it has been noted that "women view their own orgasm as important for their partners (i.e., to communicate their enjoyment of a sexual experience) more so than for their own pleasure"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldey|first1=Katherine L.|last2=Posh|first2=Amanda R.|last3=Bell|first3=Sarah N.|last4=van Anders|first4=Sari M.|date=2016-03-23|title=Defining Pleasure: A Focus Group Study of Solitary and Partnered Sexual Pleasure in Queer and Heterosexual Women|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=45|issue=8|pages=2137–2154|doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0704-8|pmid=27007471|s2cid=22125468|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> and that the existing pressure to produce an orgasm for male partners during sexual activity is a barrier for them to actually orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nicolson|first1=Paula|last2=Burr|first2=Jennifer|date=2003|title=What is 'normal' about women's (hetero)sexual desire and orgasm?: a report of an in-depth interview study|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=57|issue=9|pages=1735–1745|doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00012-1|pmid=12948581|issn=0277-9536}}</ref><ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=Rachel|date=2014-10-31|title=Performing sex: the making and unmaking of women's erotic lives Breanne Fahs|journal=Feminism & Psychology|volume=24|issue=4|pages=552–556|doi=10.1177/0959353514533864|s2cid=147538635|issn=0959-3535|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/89851/1/O%27Neill_Performing-Sex_Accepted.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Gavey|first2=Nicola|last3=McPhillips|first3=Kathryn|date=2003|title=The 'Fair Deal'? Unpacking Accounts of Reciprocity in Heterosex|journal=Sexualities|volume=6|issue=2|pages=237–261|doi=10.1177/1363460703006002005|s2cid=144614304|issn=1363-4607}}</ref>
+In general, women have been associated with having a decreased degree of sexual assertiveness in comparison to men, and this has often been found to have been at the detriment of women's own sexual satisfaction.<ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sanchez|first1=Diana T.|last2=Phelan|first2=Julie E.|last3=Moss-Racusin|first3=Corinne A.|last4=Good|first4=Jessica J.|date=2012|title=The Gender Role Motivation Model of Women's Sexually Submissive Behavior and Satisfaction in Heterosexual Couples|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=38|issue=4|pages=528–539|doi=10.1177/0146167211430088|pmid=22207631|s2cid=12737995|issn=0146-1672|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/6e8fe36a027681753038ce014904022150afdf62}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haavio-Mannila|first1=Elina|last2=Kontula|first2=Osmo|date=1997|title=What increases sexual satisfaction?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=26|issue=4|pages=399–419|doi=10.1023/A:1024591318836|pmid=9251837|s2cid=4266412}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herbenick|first1=Debby|last2=Fu|first2=Tsung-Chieh (Jane)|last3=Arter|first3=Jennifer|last4=Sanders|first4=Stephanie A.|last5=Dodge|first5=Brian|date=2018-02-17|title=Women's Experiences With Genital Touching, Sexual Pleasure, and Orgasm: Results From a U.S. Probability Sample of Women Ages 18 to 94|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=44|issue=2|pages=201–212|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2017.1346530|issn=0092-623X|pmid=28678639|s2cid=205472756}}</ref> It has been proposed that for women, masturbation is an effective means to discover one's own preferences in order to be able to communicate the same to sexual partners.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hogarth|first1=Harriet|last2=Ingham|first2=Roger|date=2009-11-10|title=Masturbation Among Young Women and Associations with Sexual Health: An Exploratory Study|journal=Journal of Sex Research|volume=46|issue=6|pages=558–567|doi=10.1080/00224490902878993|pmid=19350442|s2cid=12584876|issn=0022-4499}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Laqueur|first=Thomas|date=2004|title=Solitary Sex: A Cultural History of Masturbation|journal=The American Historical Review|doi=10.1086/ahr/109.2.478|issn=1937-5239}}</ref> Communication in which one is able to articulate their sexual needs or interests, along with having a partner receptive to the same, are both instrumental aspects of satisfying sexual relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=MacNeil|first1=Sheila|last2=Byers|first2=E. Sandra|date=2005|title=Dyadic assessment of sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction in heterosexual dating couples|journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=169–181|doi=10.1177/0265407505050942|s2cid=145299560|issn=0265-4075}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> There is a tendency for open sexual communication to be low or lacking between couples who experience difficulty with reaching orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=Mary P.|last2=Strassberg|first2=Donald S.|last3=Turner|first3=Charles|date=2004|title=Communication and Associated Relationship Issues in Female Anorgasmia|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=30|issue=4|pages=263–276|doi=10.1080/00926230490422403|pmid=15205064|s2cid=30209668|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Women who have difficulty reaching orgasm, report that they may hide this from their partner by incorrectly communicating their sexual satisfaction, and that this is most commonly completed through the performance of a fake orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Celia|last2=Kippax|first2=Susan|author-link2=Susan Kippax|last3=Waldby|first3=Catherine|last4=Crawford|first4=June|date=1995|title=Faking it|url=|journal=Women's Studies International Forum|volume=18|issue=5–6|pages=523–532|doi=10.1016/0277-5395(95)80090-c|issn=0277-5395}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kingsberg|first1=Sheryl A.|last2=Tkachenko|first2=Natalia|last3=Lucas|first3=Johna|last4=Burbrink|first4=Amy|last5=Kreppner|first5=Wayne|last6=Dickstein|first6=Jodi B.|date=2013|title=Characterization of Orgasmic Difficulties by Women: Focus Group Evaluation|journal=The Journal of Sexual Medicine|volume=10|issue=9|pages=2242–2250|doi=10.1111/jsm.12224|pmid=23802867|issn=1743-6095}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Darling|first1=Carol A.|last2=Davdon|first2=J. Kenneth|date=1986|title=Enhancing relationships: Understanding the feminine mystique of pretending orgasm|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=12|issue=3|pages=182–196|doi=10.1080/00926238608415405|pmid=3761371|issn=0092-623X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Erin B.|last2=Fenigstein|first2=Allan|last3=Fauber|first3=Robert L.|date=2013-12-18|title=The Faking Orgasm Scale for Women: Psychometric Properties|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=43|issue=3|pages=423–435|doi=10.1007/s10508-013-0212-z|pmid=24346866|s2cid=23041015|issn=0004-0002}}</ref><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":19" /> Furthermore, it has been noted that "women view their own orgasm as important for their partners (i.e., to communicate their enjoyment of a sexual experience) more so than for their own pleasure"<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goldey|first1=Katherine L.|last2=Posh|first2=Amanda R.|last3=Bell|first3=Sarah N.|last4=van Anders|first4=Sari M.|date=2016-03-23|title=Defining Pleasure: A Focus Group Study of Solitary and Partnered Sexual Pleasure in Queer and Heterosexual Women|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=45|issue=8|pages=2137–2154|doi=10.1007/s10508-016-0704-8|pmid=27007471|s2cid=22125468|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> and that the existing pressure to produce an orgasm for male partners during sexual activity is a barrier for them to actually orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nicolson|first1=Paula|last2=Burr|first2=Jennifer|date=2003|title=What is 'normal' about women's (hetero)sexual desire and orgasm?: a report of an in-depth interview study|journal=Social Science & Medicine|volume=57|issue=9|pages=1735–1745|doi=10.1016/s0277-9536(03)00012-1|pmid=12948581|issn=0277-9536}}</ref><ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=O'Neill|first=Rachel|date=2014-10-31|title=Performing sex: the making and unmaking of women's erotic lives Breanne Fahs|journal=Feminism & Psychology|volume=24|issue=4|pages=552–556|doi=10.1177/0959353514533864|s2cid=147538635|issn=0959-3535|url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/89851/1/O%27Neill_Performing-Sex_Accepted.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=Virginia|last2=Gavey|first2=Nicola|last3=McPhillips|first3=Kathryn|date=2003|title=The 'Fair Deal'? Unpacking Accounts of Reciprocity in Heterosex|journal=Sexualities|volume=6|issue=2|pages=237–261|doi=10.1177/1363460703006002005|s2cid=144614304|issn=1363-4607}}</ref>
 ====Sex education====
-The aspect of pleasure is generally overlooked within sex education that is presented to youth; instead, the vast majority of content is primarily concerned with reproductive health, centering on preventative measures for unwanted pregnancy and [[sexually transmitted infection]]s.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Koepsel|first=Erica R.|date=2016-07-02|title=The Power in Pleasure: Practical Implementation of Pleasure in Sex Education Classrooms|journal=American Journal of Sexuality Education|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=205–265|doi=10.1080/15546128.2016.1209451|s2cid=152162850|issn=1554-6128}}</ref> Physiological processes of pleasure (such as arousal, orgasm, or [[ejaculation]]) are typically only referenced in a reproductive context, rather than for the sole purpose of pleasure; the main reason being for this is that these components of pleasure are deemed necessary of male bodies in order to conceive.<ref name=":15" /><ref>Pastor, S. K. (2009). Education for sexual intimacy and agency. In N. Worcester & M. H. Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 440–446). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fine|first=Michelle|date=1988|title=Sexuality, Schooling, and Adolescent Females: The Missing Discourse of Desire|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=58|issue=1|pages=29–54|doi=10.17763/haer.58.1.u0468k1v2n2n8242|issn=0017-8055}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2002-10-01|title=Harmful to minors: the perils of protecting children from sex|journal=Choice Reviews Online|volume=40|issue=2|pages=40–1237–40-1237|doi=10.5860/choice.40-1237|issn=0009-4978}}</ref> Alternatively, areas of the body conducive to female pleasure- the clitoris, [[Perineal sponge|perineal]] or urethral sponges- are not linked to conception and therefore have been largely disregarded from sex education curricula and instead, only female internal organs are taught in the classroom setting.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":15" /><ref>Johnson, J. (2009). Exposed at last: The truth about your clitoris. In N.Worcester &M. H.Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 454–456). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.</ref> Scholars claim that "the lack of a cohesive understanding of pleasure makes pursuing implementation of pleasure overwhelming and inaccessible for educators and may account for why academic research on pleasure has failed to make its way into the practical world of sex education classrooms".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=Louisa|last2=Carmody|first2=Moira|date=2012-05-08|title='Pleasure has no passport': re-visiting the potential of pleasure in sexuality education|journal=Sex Education|volume=12|issue=4|pages=455–468|doi=10.1080/14681811.2012.677208|s2cid=143595332|issn=1468-1811}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> Sexual self-exploration is also a commonly unaddressed topic within the classroom setting, yet "past research indicates that including masturbation in sexuality education can improve attitudes toward masturbation and debunk myths or false beliefs".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaestle|first1=Christine E.|last2=Allen|first2=Katherine R.|date=2011|title=The Role of Masturbation in Healthy Sexual Development: Perceptions of Young Adults|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=40|issue=5|pages=983–994|doi=10.1007/s10508-010-9722-0|pmid=21293916|s2cid=23353776|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> One study of university students' sexual knowledge found that more than 60% of students held the false belief that the clitoris is located within the vaginal canal.<ref name=":72"/>
+In the early 21st century, the aspect of pleasure was generally overlooked within sex education that was presented to youth; instead, the vast majority of content was primarily concerned with reproductive health, centering on preventative measures for unwanted pregnancy and [[sexually transmitted infection]]s.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Koepsel|first=Erica R.|date=2016-07-02|title=The Power in Pleasure: Practical Implementation of Pleasure in Sex Education Classrooms|journal=American Journal of Sexuality Education|language=en|volume=11|issue=3|pages=205–265|doi=10.1080/15546128.2016.1209451|s2cid=152162850|issn=1554-6128}}</ref> Physiological processes of pleasure (such as arousal, (male) orgasm, or (male) [[ejaculation]]) were typically only referenced in a reproductive context, rather than for the sole purpose of pleasure. The main reason for this was that these components of pleasure were deemed necessary of male bodies in order to conceive.<ref name=":15" /><ref>Pastor, S. K. (2009). Education for sexual intimacy and agency. In N. Worcester & M. H. Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 440–446). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fine|first=Michelle|date=1988|title=Sexuality, Schooling, and Adolescent Females: The Missing Discourse of Desire|journal=Harvard Educational Review|volume=58|issue=1|pages=29–54|doi=10.17763/haer.58.1.u0468k1v2n2n8242|issn=0017-8055}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|date=2002-10-01|title=Harmful to minors: the perils of protecting children from sex|journal=Choice Reviews Online|volume=40|issue=2|pages=40–1237–40-1237|doi=10.5860/choice.40-1237|issn=0009-4978}}</ref> On the other hand, areas of the body conducive to female pleasure – particularly the clitoris, [[Perineal sponge|perineal]] or [[urethral sponge]]s (which may include the [[G-spot]]) – are not linked to conception and therefore have been largely disregarded from sex education curricula and instead, only female internal organs were taught in the classroom setting.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":15" /><ref>Johnson, J. (2009). Exposed at last: The truth about your clitoris. In N.Worcester &M. H.Whatley (Eds.), Women's health: Readings on social, economic and political issues (pp. 454–456). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.</ref> Scholars have claimed that "the lack of a cohesive understanding of pleasure makes pursuing implementation of pleasure overwhelming and inaccessible for educators and may account for why academic research on pleasure has failed to make its way into the practical world of sex education classrooms".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Allen|first1=Louisa|last2=Carmody|first2=Moira|date=2012-05-08|title='Pleasure has no passport': re-visiting the potential of pleasure in sexuality education|journal=Sex Education|volume=12|issue=4|pages=455–468|doi=10.1080/14681811.2012.677208|s2cid=143595332|issn=1468-1811}}</ref><ref name=":15" /> Sexual self-exploration was also a commonly unaddressed topic within the classroom setting, yet "past research indicates that including masturbation in sexuality education can improve attitudes toward masturbation and debunk myths or false beliefs".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kaestle|first1=Christine E.|last2=Allen|first2=Katherine R.|date=2011|title=The Role of Masturbation in Healthy Sexual Development: Perceptions of Young Adults|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|language=en|volume=40|issue=5|pages=983–994|doi=10.1007/s10508-010-9722-0|pmid=21293916|s2cid=23353776|issn=0004-0002}}</ref> One study of university students' sexual knowledge found that more than 60% of students held the false belief that the clitoris is located within the vaginal canal.<ref name=":72"/>
 ====Media and pornography====
-[[Heterosexuality|Heterosexual]] activity depicted in mainstream media and [[pornography]] is predominantly centred on male pleasure and often includes sexual myths which may influence the construction of one's understanding of what constitutes normal/typical sexual behaviour. The female orgasm as portrayed by media and pornography regularly promotes a false image in which women orgasm from penetration alone. Researchers conclude that this fallacy may contribute to unrealistic expectations for what methods of sexual activity are necessary for women to orgasm in real life encounters.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/20/opinion/sunday/when-did-porn-become-sex-ed.html|title=Opinion {{!}} When Did Porn Become Sex Ed?|last=Orenstein|first=Peggy|date=2016-03-19|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-28|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
+In the early 21st century, [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] activity depicted in mainstream media and [[pornography]] was predominantly centred on male pleasure and often included sexual myths which could influence the construction of one's understanding of what constitutes normal/typical sexual behaviour. The female orgasm, as portrayed by media and pornography, regularly promoted a false image in which women always orgasmed from penetration alone. Researchers concluded that this misrepresentation could contribute to unrealistic expectations for what methods of sexual activity are necessary for women to orgasm in real-life encounters.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/20/opinion/sunday/when-did-porn-become-sex-ed.html|title=Opinion {{!}} When Did Porn Become Sex Ed?|last=Orenstein|first=Peggy|date=2016-03-19|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-28|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
-The desire for female porn viewers to see what they want to see, including the female performers on screen having real orgasms instead of fake ones, was one of the main factors leading to the rise of [[feminist pornography]] in the 1980s and 1990s in North America and Europe.<ref name="Taormino">{{Cite book |title=The Feminist Porn Book: The Politics of Producing Pleasure |date=2013 |publisher=Feminist Press at the City University of New York |last1=Taormino |first1=Tristan |last2=Shimizu |first2=Celine Parreñas |last3=Penley |first3=Constance |last4=Miller-Young |first4=Mireille |isbn=9781558618190 |location=New York |oclc=828140733}}</ref>{{rp|13–15}} According to feminist pornographer [[Tristan Taormino]] (2013), 'in feminist porn, female desire, pleasure, and orgasm are prioritized and celebrated. When the sex on screen represents the experience of the performers (no one is "faking" anything), and that experience is set up to be positive and supportive, sex is presented as joyful, fun, safe, mutual, and satisfying.'<ref name="Taormino"/>{{rp|297}}
+The desire of female porn viewers to see what they want to see, including the female performers on screen having real orgasms instead of fake ones, was one of the main factors leading to the rise of [[feminist pornography]] in the 1980s and 1990s in North America and Europe.<ref name="Taormino">{{Cite book |title=The Feminist Porn Book: The Politics of Producing Pleasure |date=2013 |publisher=Feminist Press at the City University of New York |last1=Taormino |first1=Tristan |last2=Shimizu |first2=Celine Parreñas |last3=Penley |first3=Constance |last4=Miller-Young |first4=Mireille |isbn=9781558618190 |location=New York |oclc=828140733}}</ref>{{rp|13–15}} According to feminist pornographer [[Tristan Taormino]] (2013), 'in feminist porn, female desire, pleasure, and orgasm are prioritized and celebrated. When the sex on screen represents the experience of the performers (no one is "faking" anything), and that experience is set up to be positive and supportive, sex is presented as joyful, fun, safe, mutual, and satisfying.'<ref name="Taormino"/>{{rp|297}}
 ==See also ==
@@ Line 38: / Line 38: @@
 == References ==
+{{Reflist}}
-<references />
 [[Category:Sexuality-related prejudices]]