Jump to content

Balanitis xerotica obliterans: Difference between revisions

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
Letuño (talk | contribs)
552 edits
→‎Etiology: disambiguating
mNo edit summary
Line 131: Line 131:


Glansectomy may be required.<ref name="depasquale2000" />
Glansectomy may be required.<ref name="depasquale2000" />

==External Links==
* [http://reconstructiveurology.wordpress.com Reconstructive Urology]
* [http://strictureurethra.wordpress.com Stricture Urethra]


== See also ==
== See also ==

Revision as of 03:02, 12 February 2012

Balanitis xerotica obliterans
SpecialtyUrology Edit this on Wikidata

Balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO) is a dermatological (skin) condition affecting the male genitalia. It was first described by Stuhmer in 1928, though earlier reports describe what may have been the same condition.[1] BXO commonly occurs on the foreskin and glans penis.[2] Atrophic white patches appear on the affected area,[3] and commonly, a whitish ring of indurated (hardened) tissue usually forms near the tip that may prevent retraction.[2]

Epidemiology

The true prevalence of BXO is controversial and unclear. One study calculated a rate of 0.6% of boys are affected by their 15th birthdays.[4] Another reported a rate of 0.07%.[5] However, a review noted that "with a high degree of suspicion and histologic examination, the condition will prove to be much more frequent than one generally believes."[6] Another suggested that "more cases would be diagnosed during infancy if all dried foreskin were examined systematically."[7] Another remarked that the condition "may be misdiagnosed or ignored in the young boy."[8] Yet another commented that "its true incidence is not appreciated because most cases are cured by circumcision, and unfortunately many surgeons still fail to send their circumcision specimens for histology."[9] Another remarked that the "extent of asymptomatic disease in this series would suggest the true prevalence of LS in men might be much higher than published work suggests."[10]

According to some authors, the disease most frequently affects middle-aged men.[2] However, a large study reported that the age distribution was similar from 2 to 90 years of age, except for men in their twenties, who were at twice the risk.[5] The same study found that black and Hispanic men had approximately twice the risk of white men. The authors suggested possible reasons for this, including access to health care, differences in neonatal circumcision rates, and climate differences.

Mallon et al. found that BXO was related to circumcision status. Adjusting for age, lack of circumcision was associated with an odds ratio of 53.55. The finding was statistically significant.[11] However, BXO has also been noted to occur after late circumcision, especially when performed for phimosis.[1][11][5]

Etiology

The etiology of BXO is uncertain. However, some possibilities have been suggested.

Some studies have shown that patients with BXO also show signs of suffering from autoimmune disorders.[12][13][14] However, this finding is not repeated in every study.[13]

Infection from "human papilloma virus (serotype 16 in particular), spirochetes and atypical mycobacteria" has also been suggested as a cause.[5] Additional suggestions include "pemphigus vulgaris and chronic nonspecific bacterial balanitis".[15]

Relationship to phimosis

BXO is a common cause of pathological phimosis.[2][3]

Kiss et al. report that 40% of boys with phimosis suffered from BXO.[16] Shankar and Rickwood reported BXO in 84% of phimosis patients.[4] Evans reported BXO in 10.5% of phimosis patients.[17] Clemmensen et al. reported BXO in 14.2% of phimosis patients.[18] Bale reported that BXO was found in 19% of circumcisions performed for diseases of the prepuce and penis.[19] Mattioli observed BXO in 60% of patients with acquired phimosis and 30% of patients with congenital phimosis.[20] Rickwood reported BXO in 20 of 21 patients circumcised for pathological phimosis.[21]

Relationship to lichen sclerosus

Many researchers regard BXO as lichen sclerosus et atrophicus (LSA) of the penis, LSA is also known as lichen sclerosus (LS). Lately BXO was coded as part of LSA by Medical literature search tool Medline.[22][23][24] However, Mallon et al. suggest that BXO "may be a consequence of other fibrosing dermatoses, such as lichen planus and cicatricial pemphigoid."[11] When occurring on the male genitals, the term 'BXO' is traditionally used.[2]

Prevention

There is no known means of preventing BXO. However, one study reports that the data "suggest that circumcision prevents or protects against common infective penile dermatoses."[11]

Prognosis

BXO is chronic and often progressive.[2] Please see the following section on treatment.

The condition may cause pain, irritation, and disturbance of sexual function.[15]

In later stages, a meatal stricture may occur, causing urinary retention.[1][2] This may result in bladder or kidney damage.[2]

The coronal sulcus and frenulum may be destroyed.[2]

Phimosis or paraphimosis may occur.[2]

Several studies indicate that BXO may play a pre-cancerous role,[25][26][27][28][29] resulting in squamous cell carcinoma of the penis, a form of penile cancer.

Diagnosis

Neuhaus and Skidmore report that "Tzanck smear and cutaneous biopsy, along with a rapid protein reagin test, will provide a definitive diagnosis."[30]

Depasquale et al. note that many surgeons do not send circumcision specimens for histology. They caution that this practice "is becoming medicolegally indefensible in a litigation-conscious society, where the clinical sequelae of BXO are often misinterpreted by the patient as surgical errors."[9]

Treatment

Therapy focuses on prevention of disease progression.[30]

Shelley reported some success with long-term antibiotic therapy. However, relapses were seen upon stopping treatment.[31]

Some success has been reported with topical steroids,[32] when scarring is minimal,[33] though some have found this ineffectual.[34]

Moderate therapeutic results have been reported using etretinate.[35]

Some success has been reported in the use of carbon dioxide laser therapy.[36][37][38]

Many authors report that circumcision is the treatment of choice,[9][2][39] with modifications if necessary.[40] Pasieczny suggests testosterone ointment, however.[41]

Glansectomy may be required.[9]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Freeman C, Laymon CW (1941). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). Arch Dermat Syph. 44 (4): 547–59. Retrieved 2006-10-01. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Keogh GC. "Balanitis xerotica obliterans". eMedicine.com. Retrieved 2005-08-15.
  3. ^ a b Buechner S (2002). "Common skin disorders of the penis". BJU Int. 90 (5): 498–506. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2002.02962.x. PMID 12175386. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b Shankar K, Rickwood A (1999). "The incidence of phimosis in boys". BJU Int. 84 (1): 101–2. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.00147.x. PMID 10444134. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ a b c d Kizer W, Prarie T, Morey A (2003). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans: epidemiologic distribution in an equal access health care system". South Med J. 96 (1): 9–11. doi:10.1097/00007611-200301000-00004. PMID 12602705. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Das S, Tunuguntla H (2000). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans--a review". World J Urol. 18 (6): 382–7. doi:10.1007/PL00007083. PMID 11204255. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Garat J, Chéchile G, Algaba F, Santaularia J (1986). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children". J Urol. 136 (2): 436–7. PMID 3735511. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ McKay D, Fuqua F, Weinberg A (1975). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children". J Urol. 114 (5): 773–5. PMID 1237636. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b c d Depasquale I, Park AJ, Bracka A. (2000). "The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). BJU Int. 86 (4): 459–65. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2000.00772.x. PMID 10971272. Retrieved 2006-10-01. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Riddell I, Edwards A, Sherrard J. (2000). "Clinical features of lichen sclerosus in men attending a department of genitourinary medicine". Sex Trans Infect. 76 (4): 311–3. doi:10.1136/sti.76.4.311. PMC 1744198. PMID 11026891. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ a b c d Mallon E, Hawkins D, Dinneen M, Francics N, Fearfield L, Newson R, Bunker C (2000). "Circumcision and genital dermatoses". Arch Dermatol. 136 (3): 350–4. doi:10.1001/archderm.136.3.350. PMID 10724196. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Azurdia R, Luzzi G, Byren I, Welsh K, Wojnarowska F, Marren P, Edwards A (1999). "Lichen sclerosus in adult men: a study of HLA associations and susceptibility to autoimmune disease". British Journal of Dermatology. 140 (1): 79–83. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.02611.x. PMID 10215772. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b Meyrick Thomas R, Ridley C, Black M (1983). "The association of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus and autoimmune-related disease in males". Br J Dermatol. 109 (6): 661–4. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1983.tb00546.x. PMID 6652042. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Harrington C, Dunsmore I (1981). "An investigation into the incidence of auto-immune disorders in patients with lichen sclerosus and atrophicus". Br J Dermatol. 104 (5): 563–6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1981.tb08172.x. PMID 7236515. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ a b Edwards S. (1996). "Balanitis and balanoposthitis: a review" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). Genitourin Med. 72 (3): 155–9. PMC 1195642. PMID 8707315. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  16. ^ Kiss A, Király L, Kutasy B, Merksz M (2005). "High incidence of balanitis xerotica obliterans in boys with phimosis: prospective 10-year study". Pediatr Dermatol. 22 (4): 305–8. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1470.2005.22404.x. PMID 16060864. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Evans D (2000). "Retrospective study of male lichen sclerosus and outcome in Leicester: 1995-9 inclusive: experience of a genitourinary medicine clinic". Sex Transm Infect. 76 (6): 495. doi:10.1136/sti.76.6.495. PMC 1744250. PMID 11221136.
  18. ^ Clemmensen O, Krogh J, Petri M (1988). "The histologic spectrum of prepuces from patients with phimosis". Am J Dermatopathol. 10 (2): 104–8. doi:10.1097/00000372-198804000-00002. PMID 3239715. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Bale P, Lochhead A, Martin H, Gollow I (1987). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans in children". Pediatr Pathol. 7 (5–6): 617–27. doi:10.3109/15513818709161425. PMID 3449818.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Mattioli G, Repetto P, Carlini C, Granata C, Gambini C, Jasonni V (2002). "Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus in children with phimosis and hypospadias". Pediatr Surg Int. 18 (4): 273–5. doi:10.1007/s003830100699. PMID 12021978. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Rickwood AMK, Hemalatha V, Batcup G, Spitz L. (1980). "Phimosis in boys" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). Brit J Urol. 52 (2): 147–50. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.1980.tb02945.x. PMID 7191744. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Finkbeiner A (2003). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans: a form of lichen sclerosus". South Med J. 96 (1): 7–8. doi:10.1097/01.SMJ.0000047973.46602.E8. PMID 12602704. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ^ Laymon CW, Freeman C. (1944). "Relationship of balanitis xerotica obliterans to lichen sclerosus et atrophicus" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). Arch Dermat Syph. 49: 57–9. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  24. ^ Neill S, Tatnall F, Cox N (2002). "Guidelines for the management of lichen sclerosus". Br J Dermatol. 147 (4): 640–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.05012.x. PMID 12366407. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Velazquez E, Cubilla A (2003). "Lichen sclerosus in 68 patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the penis: frequent atypias and correlation with special carcinoma variants suggests a precancerous role". Am J Surg Pathol. 27 (11): 1448–53. doi:10.1097/00000478-200307000-00015. PMID 14576478. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. ^ Cubilla A, Velazquez E, Young R (2004). "Pseudohyperplastic squamous cell carcinoma of the penis associated with lichen sclerosus. An extremely well-differentiated, nonverruciform neoplasm that preferentially affects the foreskin and is frequently misdiagnosed: a report of 10 cases of a distinctive clinicopathologic entity". Am J Surg Pathol. 28 (7): 895–900. doi:10.1097/00000478-200407000-00008. PMID 15223959. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Perceau G, Derancourt C, Clavel C, Durlach A, Pluot M, Lardennois B, Bernard P (2003). "Lichen sclerosus is frequently present in penile squamous cell carcinomas but is not always associated with oncogenic human papillomavirus". Br J Dermatol. 148 (5): 934–8. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05326.x. PMID 12786823. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Powell J, Robson A, Cranston D, Wojnarowska F, Turner R (2001). "High incidence of lichen sclerosus in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the penis". Br J Dermatol. 145 (1): 85–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.04287.x. PMID 11453912. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Micali G, Nasca M, Innocenzi D (2001). "Lichen sclerosus of the glans is significantly associated with penile carcinoma". Sex Transm Infect. 77 (3): 226. doi:10.1136/sti.77.3.226. PMC 1744293. PMID 11402247. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ a b Neuhaus I, Skidmore R (1999). "Balanitis xerotica obliterans and its differential diagnosis". J Am Board Fam Pract. 12 (6): 473–6. PMID 10612365. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ^ Shelley W, Shelley E, Grunenwald M, Anders T, Ramnath A (1999). "Long-term antibiotic therapy for balanitis xerotica obliterans". J Am Acad Dermatol. 40 (1): 69–72. doi:10.1016/S0190-9622(99)70529-3. PMID 9922014. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Kiss A, Csontai A, Pirót L, Nyirády P, Merksz M, Király L (2001). "The response of balanitis xerotica obliterans to local steroid application compared with placebo in children". J Urol. 165 (1): 219–20. doi:10.1097/00005392-200101000-00062. PMID 11125410. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Vincent M, Mackinnon E (2005). "The response of clinical balanitis xerotica obliterans to the application of topical steroid-based creams". J Pediatr Surg. 40 (4): 709–12. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2004.12.001. PMID 15852285. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  34. ^ Wright J (1994). "The treatment of childhood phimosis with topical steroid". Aust N Z J Surg. 64 (5): 327–8. doi:10.1111/j.1445-2197.1994.tb02220.x. PMID 8179528. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Neuhofer J, Fritsch P (1984). "Treatment of localized scleroderma and lichen sclerosus with etretinate". Acta Derm Venereol. 64 (2): 171–4. PMID 6203311.
  36. ^ Kartamaa M, Reitamo S (1997). "Treatment of lichen sclerosus with carbon dioxide laser vaporization". Br J Dermatol. 136 (3): 356–9. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1997.tb14943.x. PMID 9115915. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ^ Peterson C, Lane J, Ratz J (2004). "Successful carbon dioxide laser therapy for refractory anogenital lichen sclerosus". Dermatol Surg. 30 (8): 1148–51. doi:10.1111/j.1524-4725.2004.30343.x. PMID 15274708. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ Windahl T, Hellsten S (1993). "Carbon dioxide laser treatment of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus". J Urol. 50 (3): 868–70. PMID 8345602. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ^ Meuli M, Briner J, Hanimann B, Sacher P (1994). "Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus causing phimosis in boys: a prospective study with 5-year followup after complete circumcision". J Urol. 152 (3): 987–9. PMID 8051779. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Campus G, Ena P, Scuderi N (1984). "Surgical treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans". Plast Reconstr Surg. 73 (4): 652–7. doi:10.1097/00006534-198404000-00024. PMID 6538689. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ Pasieczny TAH. (1977). "The treatment of balanitis xerotica obliterans with testosterone propionate ointment" (Reprint:The CIRP Circumcision Reference Library). Acta Derm Venerol. 57 (3): 275–7. PMID 71837. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balanitis_xerotica_obliterans&oldid=476387527"