Zoopharmacognosy: Difference between revisions
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Some birds select nesting material rich in anti-microbial agents that may protect themselves and their young from harmful infestations or infections. [[Common starling|European starlings]] (''Sturnus vulgaris'') preferentially select and line their nests with wild carrot (''[[Daucus carota]]''); chicks from nests lined with this have greater levels of [[haemoglobin]] compared to those from nests which are not, although there is no difference in the weight or feather development of the chicks. Laboratory studies show that wild carrot substantially reduces the emergence of the [[instars]] of mites.<ref name="Clark">{{cite journal|author=Clark, L. and Mason, J.R.|year=1988|title=Effect of biologically active plants used as nest material and the derived benefit to starling nestlings|journal=Oecologia|volume=77|issue=2|pages=174-180}}</ref> [[House sparrows]] (''Passer domesticus'') have been observed to line their nests with materials from the [[neem]] tree (''[[Azadirachta indica]]'') but change to [[quinine]]-rich leaves of the Krishnachua tree (''[[Caesalpinia pulcherrima]]'') during an outbreak of [[malaria]]; quinine controls the symptoms of malaria.<ref name="Costa-Neto" /><ref>{{cite web|first=Jann|last=Ichida|publisher=Proceedings of the 104th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology|url=http://www.scienceblog.com/cms/node/2776|title=Birds use herbs to protect their nests'', BJS, Science Blog, Wed, 2004-05-26}}</ref> |
Some birds select nesting material rich in anti-microbial agents that may protect themselves and their young from harmful infestations or infections. [[Common starling|European starlings]] (''Sturnus vulgaris'') preferentially select and line their nests with wild carrot (''[[Daucus carota]]''); chicks from nests lined with this have greater levels of [[haemoglobin]] compared to those from nests which are not, although there is no difference in the weight or feather development of the chicks. Laboratory studies show that wild carrot substantially reduces the emergence of the [[instars]] of mites.<ref name="Clark">{{cite journal|author=Clark, L. and Mason, J.R.|year=1988|title=Effect of biologically active plants used as nest material and the derived benefit to starling nestlings|journal=Oecologia|volume=77|issue=2|pages=174-180}}</ref> [[House sparrows]] (''Passer domesticus'') have been observed to line their nests with materials from the [[neem]] tree (''[[Azadirachta indica]]'') but change to [[quinine]]-rich leaves of the Krishnachua tree (''[[Caesalpinia pulcherrima]]'') during an outbreak of [[malaria]]; quinine controls the symptoms of malaria.<ref name="Costa-Neto" /><ref>{{cite web|first=Jann|last=Ichida|publisher=Proceedings of the 104th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology|url=http://www.scienceblog.com/cms/node/2776|title=Birds use herbs to protect their nests'', BJS, Science Blog, Wed, 2004-05-26}}</ref> |
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====Invertebrates==== |
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Wood ants (''[[Formica paralugubris]]'') often incorporate large quantities of solidified [[conifer]] resin into their nests. Laboratory studies have shown this resin inhibits the growth of microorganisms in a context mimicking natural conditions.<ref name="Christe">{{cite journal|author=Christe, P., Oppliger, A., Bancala, F., Castella, G. and Chapuisat, M.|year=2003|Evidence for collective medication in ants|journal=Ecology Letters|volume=6|pages=19–22}}</ref> |
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==Value to humans== |
==Value to humans== |
Revision as of 20:18, 19 March 2016
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Tuxedo_domestic_short_hair_cat_eats_kitty_grass.jpg/240px-Tuxedo_domestic_short_hair_cat_eats_kitty_grass.jpg)
Zoopharmacognosy is a behaviour in which non-human animals apparently self-medicate by selecting and ingesting or topically applying plants, soils, insects, and psychoactive drugs to prevent or reduce the harmful effects of pathogens and toxins.[1][2] The term derives from Greek roots zoo ("animal"), pharma ("drug"), and gnosy ("knowing").
A well-known example of zoopharmacognosy occurs when dogs eat grass to induce vomiting. However, the behaviour is more diverse than this. Animals ingest non-foods such as clay, charcoal and even toxic plants, apparently to prevent parasitic infestation or poisoning.[3] Self-medication in wild animals remains a controversial subject because evidence is mostly circumstantial or anecdotal,[4] however, there are many purported examples.[5] The methods by which animals self-medicate vary, but can be classified according to function as prophylactic (preventative, before infection or poisoning) or therapeutic (after infection, to combat the pathogen or poisoning). The behaviour is believed to have widespread adaptive significance.[6]
History and etymology
In 1978, Janzen suggested that vertebrate herbivores might benefit medicinally from the secondary metabolites in their plant food.[7]
In 1993, the term "zoopharmacognosy" was coined, derived from the Greek roots zoo ("animal"), pharma ("drug"), and gnosy ("knowing").[8] The term gained popularity from academic works[4] and in a book by Cindy Engel entitled Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn from Them.[9]
Methods of self-medication
Some animals ingest or apply the substance when they appear to be well, suggesting the behaviour is preventative or prophylactic. In other cases, animals ingest or apply the substance when unwell, suggesting the behaviour is therapeutic or curative. There are three methods of self-medication, namely, ingestion, absorption, or topical application.
Ingestion
Many examples of zoopharmacognosy involve an animal ingesting a substance with (potential) medicinal properties.
Mammals
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Bonobo_01.jpg/240px-Bonobo_01.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Parasite140002-fig2_Gastrointestinal_parasites_and_self-medication_in_ruminants.jpg/240px-Parasite140002-fig2_Gastrointestinal_parasites_and_self-medication_in_ruminants.jpg)
Great apes often consume plants that have no nutritional values but which have beneficial effects on gut acidity or combat intestinal parasitic infection.[1]
Chimpanzees sometimes select bitter leaves for chewing. Parasite infection drops noticeably after chimpanzees chew leaves of pith (Vernonia amyddalina), which have anti-parasitic activity against schistosoma, plasmodium and Leishmania. Chimpanzees don't consume this plant on a regular basis, but when they do eat it, it is often in small amounts by individuals that appear ill.[11] Jane Goodall witnessed chimpanzees eating particular bushes, apparently to make themselves vomit.[citation needed] There are reports that chimpanzees swallow whole leaves of particular rough-leaved plants such as Aneilema aequinoctiale; these remove parasitic worms from their intestines.[12]
Chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas eat the fruits of Aframomum angustifolium. Laboratory assays of homogenized fruit and seed extracts show significant anti-microbial activity.[5] Illustrating the medicinal knowledge of some species, apes have been observed selecting a particular part of a medicinal plant by taking off leaves and breaking the stem to suck out the juice.[13]
Anubis baboons (Papio anubis) and hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) in Ethiopia use fruits and leaves of Balanites aegyptiaca to control schistosomiasis.[14] Its fruits contain diosgenin, a hormone precursor that presumably hinders the development of schistosomes.[4]
African elephants (Loxodonta africana) apparently self-medicate to induce birth by chewing on the leaves of a particular tree from the family Boraginaceae; Kenyan women brew a tea from this tree to induce childbirth.[15]
White-nosed coatis (Nasua narica) in Panama take the menthol-scented resin from freshly scraped bark of Trattinnickia aspera (Burseraceae) and vigorously rub it into their own fur or that of other coatis, possibly to kill ectoparasites such as fleas, ticks, and lice, as well as biting insects such as mosquitoes;[16] the resin contains triterpenes α - and β-amyrin, the eudesmane derivative β-selinene, and the sesquiterpene lactone 8β-hydroxyasterolide.[5]
Domestic cats and dogs often select and ingest plant material, apparently to induce vomiting.[17]
Ruminants appear to learn to self-medicate against gastrointestinal parasites by increasing consumption of plant secondary compounds with antiparasitic actions. This selective feeding improves health and fitness.[10] Cattle eat clay-rich termite mound soil, which deactivates ingested pathogens or fruit toxins.[1]
Indian wild boars selectively dig up and eat the roots of pigweed which humans use as an anthelmintic. Mexican folklore indicates that pigs eat pomegranate roots because they contain an alkaloid that is toxic to tapeworms.[18]
Standard laboratory cages prevent mice from performing several natural behaviours for which they are highly motivated. As a consequence, laboratory mice sometimes develop abnormal behaviours indicative of emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety. To improve welfare, these cages are sometimes enriched with items such as nesting material, shelters and running wheels. Sherwin and Olsson[19] tested whether such enrichment influenced the consumption of Midazolam, a drug widely used to treat anxiety in humans. Mice in standard cages, standard cages but with unpredictable husbandry, or enriched cages, were given a choice of drinking either non-drugged water or a solution of the Midazolam. Mice in the standard and unpredictable cages drank a greater proportion of the anxiolytic solution than mice from enriched cages, presumably because they had been experiencing greater anxiety. Early studies indicated that autoimmune (MRL/lpr) mice readily consume solutions with cyclophosphamide, an immunosuppressive drug that prevents inflammatory damage to internal organs. However, further studies provided contradictory evidence.[1]
Several animals eat earth, a behavior known as geophagy. Tapirs, forest elephants, colobus monkeys, mountain gorillas and chimpanzees seek out and eat clay, which absorbs intestinal bacteria and their toxins and alleviates stomach upset and diarrhoea.[20]
Birds
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Parrots_at_a_clay_lick_-Tambopata_National_Reserve%2C_Peru-8d.jpg/240px-Parrots_at_a_clay_lick_-Tambopata_National_Reserve%2C_Peru-8d.jpg)
Many parrot species in the Americas, Africa, and Papua New Guinea consume kaolin or clay, which both releases minerals and absorbs toxic compounds from the gut.[21] Great bustards eat blister beetles of the genus Meloe to decrease parasite load in the digestive system;[22] cantharidin, the toxic compound in blister beetles, can kill a great bustard if too many beetles are ingested.[23]
Invertebrates
Woolly bear caterpillars (Grammia incorrupta) are sometimes lethally endoparasitised by tachinid flies. The caterpillars ingest plant toxins called pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which improve the survival of by conferring resistance against the flies. Crucially, parasitised caterpillars are more likely than non-parasitised caterpillars to specifically ingest large amounts of pyrrolizidine alkaloids, and excessive ingestion of these toxins reduces the survival of non-parasitised caterpillars. These three findings are all consistent with the adaptive plasticity theory.[7]
The tobacco hornworm ingests nicotine which reduces colony growth and toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis, leading to increased survival of the hornworm.[24]
Absorption
Wild chimpanzees sometimes seek whole leaves of the Aspilia plant. These contain thiarubrine-A, a chemical active against intestinal nematode parasites, however, it is quickly broken-down by the stomach. The chimpanzees pick the Aspilia leaves and, rather than chewing them, they roll them around in their mouths, sometimes for as long as 25 seconds. They then swallow the capsule-like leaves whole. As many as 15 to 35 Aspilia leaves may be used in each bout of this behaviour, particularly in the rainy season when there are many parasitic larvae leading to an increased risk of infection.[24]
Topical application
Some animals apply substances with medicinal properties to their skin. Again, this can be prophylactic or curative. In some cases, this is known as self-anointing.
Mammals
A female capuchin monkey in captivity was observed using tools covered in a sugar-based syrup to groom her wounds and those of her infant.[25][26]
North American brown bears (Ursos arctos) make a paste of Osha roots (Ligusticum porteri) and saliva and rub it through their fur to repel insects or soothe bites. This plant, locally known as bear root, contains 105 active compounds, such as coumarins that may repel insects when topically applied. Navajo Indians are said to have learned to use this root medicinally from the bear for treating stomach aches and infections.[5]
Birds
More than 200 species[24] of song birds wipe ants through their plumage in a behaviour often called anting. Birds grasp ants in their bill and wipe them vigorously along the spine of each feather down to the base. Sometimes, they roll in ant hills twisting and turning so the ants crawl through their feathers. Birds most commonly use ants that spray formic acid. In laboratory tests, this acid is harmful to feather lice. Its vapour alone can kill them.
Some birds select nesting material rich in anti-microbial agents that may protect themselves and their young from harmful infestations or infections. European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) preferentially select and line their nests with wild carrot (Daucus carota); chicks from nests lined with this have greater levels of haemoglobin compared to those from nests which are not, although there is no difference in the weight or feather development of the chicks. Laboratory studies show that wild carrot substantially reduces the emergence of the instars of mites.[27] House sparrows (Passer domesticus) have been observed to line their nests with materials from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) but change to quinine-rich leaves of the Krishnachua tree (Caesalpinia pulcherrima) during an outbreak of malaria; quinine controls the symptoms of malaria.[5][28]
Invertebrates
Wood ants (Formica paralugubris) often incorporate large quantities of solidified conifer resin into their nests. Laboratory studies have shown this resin inhibits the growth of microorganisms in a context mimicking natural conditions.[29]
Value to humans
In an interview with Neil Campbell, Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity to medicine:
- "Some of the compounds we've identified by zoopharmacognosy kill parasitic worms, and some of these chemicals may be useful against tumors. There is no question that the templates for most drugs are in the natural world."[13]
Media
- 2002 British documentary television series Weird Nature episode 6 Peculiar Potions documents variety of animals engaging in intoxication or zoopharmacognosy.[30]
See also
- Effect of psychoactive drugs on animals
- Biomimicry
- List of abnormal behaviours in animals
- Pica (disorder)
- Wound licking
Notes
- ^ a b c d Kapadia, M., Zhao, H., Ma, D., Hatkar, R., Marchese, M. and Sakic, B. (2014). "Zoopharmacognosy in diseased laboratory mice: Conflicting evidence". PloS One. 9 (6): e100684.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Attardo, C. and Sartori, F. (2003). "Pharmacologically active plant metabolites as survival strategy products". Bollettino chimico farmaceutico. 142: 54–65.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Biser, Jennifer A. (1998). "Really wild remedies — medicinal plant use by animals". nationalzoo.si.edu. National Zoological Park. Retrieved 2005-01-13.
- ^ a b c Lozano, G.A. (1998). "Parasitic stress and self-medication in wild animals". Advances in the Study of Behavior. 27: 291–317. doi:10.1016/s0065-3454(08)60367-8. ISBN 9780120045273.
- ^ a b c d e Costa-Neto, E.M. (2012). "Zoopharmacognosy, the self-medication behavior of animals". Interfaces Científicas-Saúde e Ambiente. 1 (1): 61–72.
- ^ Raman, R and Kandula, S. (2008). "Zoopharmacognosy: Self-medication in wild animals". Resonance. 13 (3): 245.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Singer, M.S., Mace, K.C. and Bernays, E.A. (2009). "Self-medication as adaptive plasticity: increased ingestion of plant toxins by parasitized caterpillars". PLoS One. 4 (3): e4796.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Rodriguez, E. and Wrangham, R. (1993). "Zoopharmacognosy: The use of medicinal plants by animals". Phytochemical Potential of Tropical Plants. 27: 89–105. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-1783-6_4. ISBN 978-1-4899-1785-0. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Engel, Cindy (2002). Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn from Them. Harcourt Mifflin Harcourt, New York.
- ^ a b Villalba, J. J.; Miller, J.; Ungar, E. D.; Landau, S. Y.; Glendinning, J. (2014). "Ruminant self-medication against gastrointestinal nematodes: evidence, mechanism, and origins". Parasite. 21: 31. doi:10.1051/parasite/2014032. PMC 4073621. PMID 24971486.
- ^ Jacobs, J.Q. (2000). "Bonobo's late night tales". Retrieved November 27, 2013.
- ^ Reynolds, Vernon (2005). The chimpanzees of the Budongo Forest: ecology, behaviour, and conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-19-851545-6.
- ^ a b Campbell, N.A. (1996). An interview with Eloy Rodriguez. Biology (4th edition). Benjamin Cummings, NY. p. 23. ISBN 0-8053-1957-3.
- ^ Raman, R; Kandula, S (2008). "Zoopharmacognosy: self-medication in wild animals". Resonance. 13 (3): 245–253. doi:10.1007/s12045-008-0038-5.
- ^ Linden, Eugene (2002). The Octopus and the Orangutan: More Tales of Animal Intrigue, Intelligence and Ingenuity. New York City: Plume. pp. 16–17, 104–105, 191. ISBN 0-452-28411-2. OCLC 49627740.
- ^ Huffman, M.A. (1997). "Current evidence for self-medication in primates: a multidisciplinary perspective". Yearbook of Physical Anthropology. 40: 171–200.
- ^ Orzeck, R. (2007). "Pondering the mysteries of our universe: Why do dogs eat grass?". Retrieved October 28, 2013.
- ^ Glander, K.E. (1994). "Nonhuman primate self-medication with wild plant foods". In Etkin, N.L. (ed.). Eating on the Wild Side: The Pharmacologic, Ecologic, and Social Implications of Using Noncultigens. The University of Arizona Press. pp. 227–239.
- ^ Sherwin, C.M.; Olsson, I.A.S. (2004). "Housing conditions affect self-administration of anxiolytic by laboratory mice". Animal Welfare. 13: 33–38.
- ^ Bolton, K.A.; Campbell, V.M.; Burton, F.D. (1998). "Chemical analysis of soil of Kowloon (Hong Kong) eaten by hybrid macaques". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 24: 195–205. doi:10.1023/a:1022521306597.
- ^ Diamond, J (1999). "Evolutionary biology: Dirty eating for healthy living". Nature. 400 (6740): 120–121. doi:10.1038/22014. PMID 10408435.
- ^ Bravo, C.; Bautista, L.M.; García-París, M.; Blanco, G.; Alonso, J.C. (2014). "Males of a Strongly Polygynous Species Consume More Poisonous Food than Females". PLoS ONE. 9 (10): e111057. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111057. PMID 25337911.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Sánchez-Barbudo, I. S.; Camarero, P.; García-Montijano, M.; Mateo, R. (2012). "Possible cantharidin poisoning of a great bustard (Otis tarda)". Toxicon. 59 (1): 100–103. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.10.002. PMID 22001622.
- ^ a b c Clayton, D.H. and Wolfe, N.D. (1993). "The adaptive significance of self-medication". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (2): 60–63.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Westergaard, G.; Fragaszy, D. (1987). Self-treatment of wounds by a capuchin monkey (Cebus apella). Vol. 2. pp. 557–56. doi:10.1007/bf02437429.
{{cite book}}
:|journal=
ignored (help) - ^ Ritchie, B.G.; Fragaszy, D.M. (1988). "Capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) grooms her infant's wound with tools". American Journal of Primatology. 16 (4): 345–348. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350160407.
- ^ Clark, L. and Mason, J.R. (1988). "Effect of biologically active plants used as nest material and the derived benefit to starling nestlings". Oecologia. 77 (2): 174–180.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Ichida, Jann. "Birds use herbs to protect their nests, BJS, Science Blog, Wed, 2004-05-26". Proceedings of the 104th General Meeting of the American Society for Microbiology.
- ^ Christe, P., Oppliger, A., Bancala, F., Castella, G. and Chapuisat, M. (2003). Ecology Letters. 6: 19–22.
{{cite journal}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help); Text "Evidence for collective medication in ants" ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ BBC Weird Nature (6-6) - Peculiar Potions part 1 / 3