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'''Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici''' (10 April 1389 – 1 August 1464) was the first of the [[House of Medici|Medici political dynasty]], ''de facto'' rulers of [[Florence]] during much of the Italian [[Renaissance]]. He is also known as "Cosimo 'the Elder'" ("''il Vecchio''") and "''Pater Patriae''" ([[Latin]]: 'father of the nation'), a title which was conferred to him after his death. His power derived from his great wealth as a banker, and he was a great patron of learning, the arts and architecture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Strathern |first=Paul |date=2005 |title=The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance |url= |location=London |publisher=Pimlico |pages=45–126 |isbn=9781844130986 |accessdate=}}</ref>
'''Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici''' (called 'the Elder' (Italian ''il Vecchio'') and, posthumously, ''<nowiki/>'''Father of the Nation' (Latin ''pater patriae''); born 10 April 1389 in [[Florence]], died 1 August 1464 in [[Villa Medici at Careggi|Careggi]]) was the first of the [[House of Medici|Medici political dynasty]], ''de facto'' rulers of [[Florence]] during much of the Italian [[Renaissance]]. His power derived from his great wealth as a banker, and he was a great patron of learning, the arts and architecture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Strathern |first=Paul |date=2005 |title=The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance |url= |location=London |publisher=Pimlico |pages=45–126 |isbn=9781844130986 |accessdate=}}</ref>


==Biography==
==Biography==


=== Family and Business ===
=== Early Life and the Family Business ===
Cosimo de' Medici was born in [[Republic of Florence|Florence]] to [[Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici]] and his wife [[Piccarda Bueri|Piccarda de' Bueri]] on 10 April 1389. At the time it was customary to indicate the name of one's father in one's name for the purposes of identification between two like-named individuals; thus Giovanni was the son of Bicci, and Cosimo's name was properly Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. He had a twin brother, Damiano, who died shortly after birth. The twins were named after the [[Saints Cosmas and Damian]], whose feast day was then celebrated on 27 September; Cosimo would later celebrate his own birthday on that day, rather than on the actual date of his birth.<ref>Dale Kent: ''Medici, Cosimo de’''. In: ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani'', Vol. 73, Rome 2009, pg. 36–43, here: 36; Susan McKillop: ''Dante and Lumen Christi: A Proposal for the Meaning of the Tomb of Cosimo de’ Medici.'' In: Francis Ames-Lewis (Ed.): ''Cosimo ‘il Vecchio’ de’ Medici, 1389–1464'', Oxford 1992, pg. 245–301, here: 245–248.</ref> Cosimo also had a brother, [[Lorenzo the Elder]], who was some six years his junior and participated in the family's banking enterprise.
Cosimo de' Medici was born in [[Republic of Florence|Florence]] to [[Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici]] and his wife [[Piccarda Bueri|Piccarda de' Bueri]] on 10 April 1389. At the time it was customary to indicate the name of one's father in one's name for the purposes of identification between two like-named individuals; thus Giovanni was the son of Bicci, and Cosimo's name was properly Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. He had a twin brother, Damiano, who died shortly after birth. The twins were named after the [[Saints Cosmas and Damian]], whose feast day was then celebrated on 27 September; Cosimo would later celebrate his own birthday on that day, rather than on the actual date of his birth.<ref>Dale Kent: ''Medici, Cosimo de’''. In: ''Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani'', Vol. 73, Rome 2009, pg. 36–43, here: 36; Susan McKillop: ''Dante and Lumen Christi: A Proposal for the Meaning of the Tomb of Cosimo de’ Medici.'' In: Francis Ames-Lewis (Ed.): ''Cosimo ‘il Vecchio’ de’ Medici, 1389–1464'', Oxford 1992, pg. 245–301, here: 245–248.</ref> Cosimo also had a brother, [[Lorenzo the Elder]], who was some six years his junior and participated in the family's banking enterprise.
[[File:Medici Bank mark, Firenze, Panciatichi 71.jpg|left|thumb|The late medieval mark of the [[Medici Bank]] (Banco Medici), used for the authentication of documents. Florenz, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Ms. Panciatichi 71, fol. 1r.]]

Cosimo inherited both his wealth and his expertise in banking from his father. Giovanni had gone from being a moneylender to joining his the bank of his relative, [[Vieri di Cambio]], before opening up his own bank, [[Medici Bank]], around 1397. He had been independently running Vieri's branch in Rome since the dissolution of the latter's bank into three separate and independent entities, but it was in 1397 that he left Rome to return to his home of Florence. Over the next two decades, the Medici Bank opened branches in [[Rome]], [[Geneva]], [[Venice]], and temporarily in [[Naples]]; the majority of profits was derived from Rome. The branch manager in Rome was a papal ''depositario generale'', managing Church finances in return for a commission.<ref name=":1">George Holmes: ''How the Medici became the Pope’s Bankers.'' In: Nicolai Rubinstein (Ed.): ''Florentine Studies. Politics and Society in Renaissance Florence'', London 1968, pp. 357–380; Raymond de Roover: ''The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494'', Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, p. 46 f., 198, 203; Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, S. 21; John R. Hale: ''Die Medici und Florenz'', Stuttgart 1979, p. 13; Alison Williams Lewin: ''Negotiating Survival'', Madison 2003, p. 210 f.</ref> Cosimo would later expand the bank throughout western Europe, having offices also in [[London]], [[Pisa]], [[Avignon]], [[Bruges]], and [[Milan]]; in fifteen years he would make a profit of 290,791 florins.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Renaissance: Maker of Modern Man|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M. [ed.]|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=1970|isbn=|location=|pages=46}}</ref>[[File:Cristofano dell'Altissimo (attr.), Contessina de' Bardi.jpg|left|thumb|A posthumous portrait of Contessina de' Bardi, Cosimo's wife, attributed to Cristofano dell'Altissimo, 16th century.]]About 1415, Cosimo married [[Contessina de' Bardi]] (the daughter of Giovanni, count of [[Vernio]], and Cammilla Pannocchieschi).{{sfn|Tomas|2003|p=16}} The wedding was arranged by his father as an effort to reaffirm relations with the long-standing noble [[Bardi family]], who had operated one of the richest banks in Europe until its spectacular collapse in 1345; they nevertheless remained highly influential in the financial sphere. Only part of the Bardi family were involved in this marriage alliance, for some of the branches considered themselves the opponents of the Medici clan.<ref>Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 20 f.; Dale Kent: ''The Rise of the Medici'', Oxford 1978, p. 40 f., 49–61.</ref> The couple had two sons: [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero the Gouty]] and [[Giovanni de' Medici (1421-1463)|Giovanni de' Medici]].{{sfn|Tomas|2003|p=7}} Cosimo also had an illegitimate son, [[Carlo de' Medici (1430-1492)|Carlo de' Medici]] by a [[Circassians|Circassian]] slave, who would go on to become a [[prelate]].
Cosimo inherited both his wealth and his expertise in banking from his father. Giovanni had gone from being a moneylender to joining his the bank of his relative, [[Vieri di Cambio]], before opening up his own bank, [[Medici Bank]], around 1397. He had been independently running Vieri's branch in Rome since the dissolution of the latter's bank into three separate and independent entities, but it was in 1397 that he left Rome to return to his home of Florence. Over the next two decades, the Medici Bank opened branches in [[Rome]], [[Geneva]], [[Venice]], and temporarily in [[Naples]]; the majority of profits was derived from Rome. The branch manager in Rome was a papal ''depositario generale'', managing Church finances in return for a commission.<ref name=":1">George Holmes: ''How the Medici became the Pope’s Bankers.'' In: Nicolai Rubinstein (Ed.): ''Florentine Studies. Politics and Society in Renaissance Florence'', London 1968, pp. 357–380; Raymond de Roover: ''The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494'', Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, p. 46 f., 198, 203; Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, S. 21; John R. Hale: ''Die Medici und Florenz'', Stuttgart 1979, p. 13; Alison Williams Lewin: ''Negotiating Survival'', Madison 2003, p. 210 f.</ref> Cosimo would later expand the bank throughout western Europe, having offices also in [[London]], [[Pisa]], [[Avignon]], [[Bruges]], [[Milan]],<ref name=":2" /> and [[Lübeck]],<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The War of the Roses|last=Hallam|first=Elizabeth|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=1988|isbn=|location=New York|pages=111}}</ref> which rendered it the best bank for the business of the papacy; bishoprics would be able to pay their fees into the nearest branch whose manager would then issue a papal license, and the popes could more easily order a variety of wares - such as spices, textiles, and relics - through the bankers' wholesale trade.<ref name=":3" /> In fifteen years he would make a profit of 290,791 florins.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=The Renaissance: Maker of Modern Man|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M. [ed.]|publisher=National Geographic Society|year=1970|isbn=|location=|pages=46}}</ref>


In 1415, Cosimo allegedly accompanied the [[Antipope John XXIII]] at the [[Council of Constance]], and in the same year he was named "Priore of the Republic." Later he acted frequently as [[ambassador]], showing a prudence for which he became renowned. In 1410, Giovanni had lent John XXIII, who was then called Baldassare Cosa, the money to buy himself into the office of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], which he repaid by making the Medici Bank head of all Papal finances. This gave the Medici family tremendous power, allowing them to threaten defaulting debtors with excommunication, for instance.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Wars of the Roses|last=Hallam|first=Elizabeth (Ed.)|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=1988|isbn=|location=New York|pages=110}}</ref> Misfortune hit the Medici Bank this year when the Council of Constance unseated John XXIII, thus taking away the near monopoly they had held on the finances of the Curia; thereafter the Medici Bank had to compete with other banks. However, after the Spini Bank went insolvent in 1420, they again secured priority.<ref name=":1" />
In 1415, Cosimo allegedly accompanied the [[Antipope John XXIII]] at the [[Council of Constance]], and in the same year he was named "Priore of the Republic." Later he acted frequently as [[ambassador]], showing a prudence for which he became renowned. In 1410, Giovanni had lent John XXIII, who was then called Baldassare Cosa, the money to buy himself into the office of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], which he repaid by making the Medici Bank head of all Papal finances. This gave the Medici family tremendous power, allowing them to threaten defaulting debtors with excommunication, for instance.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Wars of the Roses|last=Hallam|first=Elizabeth (Ed.)|publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=1988|isbn=|location=New York|pages=110}}</ref> Misfortune hit the Medici Bank this year when the Council of Constance unseated John XXIII, thus taking away the near monopoly they had held on the finances of the Curia; thereafter the Medici Bank had to compete with other banks. However, after the Spini Bank went insolvent in 1420, they again secured priority.<ref name=":1" />


Giovanni withdrew from the bank in 1420, leaving its leadership to both of his sons. He left them 179,221 florins upon his death in 1429.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy|last=Burckhardt|first=Jakob|publisher=The New American Library, inc.|year=1960|isbn=|location=|pages=900}}</ref> Two-thirds of this came from the business in Rome, while only a tenth came from Florence; even Venice offered better business than Florence. The brothers would earn two-thirds of the profits from the bank, with the other third going to a partner. Besides the bank, the family owned much land in the area surrounding Florence, including [[Mugello region|Mugello]], the place from which the family originally came.<ref>Heinrich Lang: ''Zwischen Geschäft, Kunst und Macht''. In: Mark Häberlein et al. (Ed.): ''Generationen in spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Städten (ca. 1250–1750)'', Konstanz 2011, pp. 43–71, here: 48 f.; Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 21; Raymond de Roover: ''The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494'', Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, S. 52; John R. Hale: ''Die Medici und Florenz'', Stuttgart 1979, p. 14.</ref>[[File:San Lorenzo, tomba di Cosimo il Vecchio.JPG|250px|thumb|The floor tomb of Cosimo de' Medici in [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence|San Lorenzo, Florence]].]]
Giovanni withdrew from the bank in 1420, leaving its leadership to both of his sons. He left them 179,221 florins upon his death in 1429.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy|last=Burckhardt|first=Jakob|publisher=The New American Library, inc.|year=1960|isbn=|location=|pages=900}}</ref> Two-thirds of this came from the business in Rome, while only a tenth came from Florence; even Venice offered better business than Florence. The brothers would earn two-thirds of the profits from the bank, with the other third going to a partner. Besides the bank, the family owned much land in the area surrounding Florence, including [[Mugello region|Mugello]], the place from which the family originally came.<ref>Heinrich Lang: ''Zwischen Geschäft, Kunst und Macht''. In: Mark Häberlein et al. (Ed.): ''Generationen in spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Städten (ca. 1250–1750)'', Konstanz 2011, pp. 43–71, here: 48 f.; Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 21; Raymond de Roover: ''The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494'', Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, S. 52; John R. Hale: ''Die Medici und Florenz'', Stuttgart 1979, p. 14.</ref>

⚫
On his death in 1464 at [[Villa Medici at Careggi|Careggi]], Cosimo was succeeded by his son [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero "the Gouty"]], father of [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo the Magnificent or Il Magnifico]]. After his death the [[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]] awarded him the title ''[[Pater Patriae]]'', "Father of his Country", an honor once awarded to [[Cicero]], and had it carved upon his tomb in the [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|Church of San Lorenzo]].

=== Florentine Politics ===
=== Florentine Politics ===
His power over Florence stemmed from his wealth, which he used to control votes. As Florence was proud of its '[[democracy]]', he pretended to have little political ambition, and did not often hold public office. Aeneas Sylvius, Bishop of [[Siena]] and later [[Pope Pius II]], said of him:<blockquote>Political questions are settled in [Cosimo's] house. The man he chooses holds office...He it is who decides peace and war...He is king in all but name."<ref>Quoted by C.Hibbert in ''The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici'', 1974 in Martin Longman, ''Italian Renaissance'' (Longman, 1992).</ref></blockquote>In 1433 Cosimo's power over Florence, which he exerted without occupying public office, began to look like a menace to the anti-Medici party, led by figures such as [[Palla Strozzi]] and [[Rinaldo degli Albizzi]]: in September of that year he was imprisoned, accused for the failure of the conquest of [[Lucca]], but he managed to turn the jail term into one of exile. He went to [[Padua]] and then to [[Venice]], taking his bank along with him. Prompted by his influence and his money, others followed him: within a year, the flight of capital from Florence was so great that the ban of exile had to be lifted. Cosimo returned a year later in 1434, to greatly influence the government of Florence (especially through the [[Luca Pitti|Pitti]] and [[Piero Soderini|Soderini]] families) and to lead by example for the rest of his long life.[[File:Cosimo goes into exile Palazzo Vecchio.jpg|thumb|Cosimo goes into exile, Palazzo Vecchio]]Cosimo's time in exile instilled in him the need to squash the factionalism that resulted in his exile in the first place. In order to do this, Cosimo, with the help of favourable priors in the Signoria, instigated a series of constitutional changes to secure his power through influence.
His power over Florence stemmed from his wealth, which he used to control votes. As Florence was proud of its '[[democracy]]', he pretended to have little political ambition, and did not often hold public office. Aeneas Sylvius, Bishop of [[Siena]] and later [[Pope Pius II]], said of him:[[File:Cosimo goes into exile Palazzo Vecchio.jpg|thumb|Cosimo goes into exile, Palazzo Vecchio|273x273px]]<blockquote>Political questions are settled in [Cosimo's] house. The man he chooses holds office...He it is who decides peace and war...He is king in all but name."<ref>Quoted by C.Hibbert in ''The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici'', 1974 in Martin Longman, ''Italian Renaissance'' (Longman, 1992).</ref></blockquote>In 1433 Cosimo's power over Florence, which he exerted without occupying public office, began to look like a menace to the anti-Medici party, led by figures such as [[Palla Strozzi]] and the [[Albizzi|Albizzi family]], headed by [[Rinaldo degli Albizzi]]: in September of that year he was imprisoned in the [[Palazzo Vecchio]], accused for the failure of the conquest of [[Lucca]], but he managed to turn the jail term into one of exile despite the fact that some, such as [[Francesco Filelfo|Filelfo]], demanded his execution.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Renaissance|last=Durant|first=Will|publisher=New York|year=1953|isbn=|series=The Story of Civilization|volume=5|location=New York|pages=193}}</ref> He went to [[Padua]] and then to [[Venice]], taking his bank along with him and finding friends and sympathizers wherever he went. Venice sent an envoy to Florence on his behalf, requested they rescind the order of banishment. When they refused, Cosimo settled down in Venice. However, prompted by his influence and his money, others followed him; within a year, the flight of capital from Florence was so great that the decree of exile had to be lifted. Cosimo returned a year later in 1434, to greatly influence the government of Florence (especially through the [[Luca Pitti|Pitti]] and [[Piero Soderini|Soderini]] families) and to lead by example for the last thirty years of his life of seventy-five years.
Cosimo's time in exile instilled in him the need to squash the factionalism that resulted in his exile in the first place. In order to do this, Cosimo, with the help of favorable priors in the Signoria, instigated a series of constitutional changes to secure his power through influence.


Following the death of [[Filippo Maria Visconti]], who had ruled the [[Duchy of Milan]] from 1412 until his death in 1447, Cosimo sent [[Francesco I Sforza]] to establish himself in Milan to prevent the impending advance of the [[Republic of Venice]]. The resultant balance of power with Milan and Florence on the one side and Venice and the [[Kingdom of Naples]] on the other, created nearly half a century of peace and allowed the development of the [[Renaissance]] in Italy.
Following the death of [[Filippo Maria Visconti]], who had ruled the [[Duchy of Milan]] from 1412 until his death in 1447, Cosimo sent [[Francesco I Sforza]] to establish himself in Milan to prevent the impending advance of the [[Republic of Venice]]. The resultant balance of power with Milan and Florence on the one side and Venice and the [[Kingdom of Naples]] on the other, created nearly half a century of peace and allowed the development of the [[Renaissance]] in Italy.


In terms of foreign policy, Cosimo worked to create peace in Northern Italy through the creation of a balance of power between [[Florence]], [[Naples]], Venice and [[Milan]] during the [[wars in Lombardy]], and discouraging outside powers (notably the French and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]) from interfering. In 1439 he was also instrumental in convincing pope [[Eugene IV]] to move the [[Ecumenical council]] of Ferrara to Florence. The arrival of notable [[Byzantine]] figures from the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Empire in the East]], including Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos]] himself, started the boom of Greek culture and arts in the city.
In terms of foreign policy, Cosimo worked to create peace in Northern Italy through the creation of a balance of power between [[Florence]], [[Naples]], Venice and [[Milan]] during the [[wars in Lombardy]], and discouraging outside powers (notably the French and the [[Holy Roman Empire]]) from interfering. In 1439 he was also instrumental in convincing pope [[Eugene IV]] to move the [[Ecumenical council]] of Ferrara to Florence. The arrival of notable [[Byzantine]] figures from the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Empire in the East]], including Emperor [[John VIII Palaiologos]] himself, started the boom of Greek culture and arts in the city.[[File:Cristofano dell'Altissimo (attr.), Contessina de' Bardi.jpg|left|thumb|A posthumous portrait of Contessina de' Bardi, Cosimo's wife, attributed to Cristofano dell'Altissimo, 16th century.|238x238px]][[File:San Lorenzo, tomba di Cosimo il Vecchio.JPG|266x266px|thumb|The floor tomb of Cosimo de' Medici in [[Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence|San Lorenzo, Florence]].]]

=== Family and Death ===
About 1415, Cosimo married [[Contessina de' Bardi]] (the daughter of Giovanni, count of [[Vernio]], and Cammilla Pannocchieschi).{{sfn|Tomas|2003|p=16}} The wedding was arranged by his father as an effort to reaffirm relations with the long-standing noble [[Bardi family]], who had operated one of the richest banks in Europe until its spectacular collapse in 1345; they nevertheless remained highly influential in the financial sphere. Only part of the Bardi family were involved in this marriage alliance, for some of the branches considered themselves the opponents of the Medici clan.<ref>Volker Reinhardt: ''Die Medici'', 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 20 f.; Dale Kent: ''The Rise of the Medici'', Oxford 1978, p. 40 f., 49–61.</ref> The couple had two sons: [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero the Gouty]] and [[Giovanni de' Medici (1421-1463)|Giovanni de' Medici]].{{sfn|Tomas|2003|p=7}} Cosimo also had an illegitimate son, [[Carlo de' Medici (1430-1492)|Carlo de' Medici]] by a [[Circassians|Circassian]] slave, who would go on to become a [[prelate]].

⚫
On his death in 1464 at [[Villa Medici at Careggi|Careggi]], Cosimo was succeeded by his son [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero "the Gouty"]], father of [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo the Magnificent or Il Magnifico]]. After his death the [[Signoria of Florence|Signoria]] awarded him the title ''[[Pater Patriae]]'', "Father of the Country", an honor once awarded to [[Cicero]], and had it carved upon his tomb in the [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|Church of San Lorenzo]].


==Patronage==
==Patronage==
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===Arts===
===Arts===
[[File:Donatello - David - Florença.jpg|thumb|Donatello's David, a Medici commission]]Cosimo was also noted for his patronage of culture and the arts during the Renaissance, liberally spending the family fortune (which his astute business sense considerably increased) to enrich Florence. According to [[Salviati]]'s{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2016}} ''Zibaldone'', Cosimo stated: "All those things have given me the greatest satisfaction and contentment because they are not only for the honor of God but are likewise for my own remembrance. For fifty years, I have done nothing else but earn money and spend money; and it became clear that spending money gives me greater pleasure than earning it."<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first= F.H.|year=1948|title=The taste of angels, a history of art collecting from Rameses to Napoleon|location=Boston|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=65–66}}</ref>
[[File:Donatello - David - Florença.jpg|thumb|Donatello's David, a Medici commission|297x297px]]Cosimo was also noted for his patronage of culture and the arts during the Renaissance, liberally spending the family fortune (which his astute business sense considerably increased) to enrich Florence. According to [[Salviati]]'s{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2016}} ''Zibaldone'', Cosimo stated: "All those things have given me the greatest satisfaction and contentment because they are not only for the honor of God but are likewise for my own remembrance. For fifty years, I have done nothing else but earn money and spend money; and it became clear that spending money gives me greater pleasure than earning it."<ref>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first= F.H.|year=1948|title=The taste of angels, a history of art collecting from Rameses to Napoleon|location=Boston|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=65–66}}</ref>
Additionally, his patronage of the arts both recognized and proclaimed the humanistic responsibility of the civic duty that came with wealth.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jurdjevic|first=Mark|title=Civic Humanism and the Rise of the Medici|journal=Renaissance Quarterly|year=1999|volume=52|issue=4|pages=994–1020}}</ref>
Additionally, his patronage of the arts both recognized and proclaimed the humanistic responsibility of the civic duty that came with wealth.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jurdjevic|first=Mark|title=Civic Humanism and the Rise of the Medici|journal=Renaissance Quarterly|year=1999|volume=52|issue=4|pages=994–1020}}</ref>


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=== Libraries ===
=== Libraries ===
[[File:Pontormo - Ritratto di Cosimo il Vecchio - Google Art Project.jpg|180px|left|thumb|Portrait by [[Jacopo Pontormo]]; the laurel branch (''il Broncone'') was a symbol used also by his heirs<ref>After the return of the Medici in 1512, Lorenzo di Piero formed a ''compagnia'' for carnival 1513, and called it ''Broncone''; the Pontormo portrait was commissioned by Goro Gheri, Lorenzo's secretary. {{cite journal|first=John |last=Shearman|title=Pontormo and Andrea Del Sarto, 1513|journal=The Burlington Magazine|volume=104|issue=716 |date=November 1962|pages=450, 478–483}}</ref>]]Cosimo de' Medici also founded the first public library in Florence, in 1444 at [[San Marco, Florence|San Marco]]. It was of central importance to the [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] movement in Florence during the Renaissance. It was designed by [[Michelozzo]], a student of [[Lorenzo Ghiberti|Ghiberti]] who later collaborated with [[Donatello]] and was also a good friend and patron to Cosimo. Cosimo contributed the funds necessary to repair the library and provide it with a book collection, which people were allowed to use at no charge. "That Cosimo de'Medici was able to finance the construction of such a site placed him in a privileged position of leadership in the city. He hand-selected those individuals who were given access to this laboratory of learning, and, through this social dynamic, he actively shaped the politics of the Republic."<ref>{{Cite journal |url = |title = Florentine Convent as Practiced Place; Cosimo de'Medici, Fra Angelico, and the Public Library of San Marco |last = Terry-Fritsch |first = Allie |date = 2012 |journal = Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue |doi = |pmid = |access-date = |issue = 18(2–3) |pages = 237}}</ref> He also commissioned Michelangelo to design a library for his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. His first library, however, was designed by Michelozzo while the two were in Venice, where Cosimo had been temporarily exiled. In 1433, in gratitude for the hospitality of that city, he left it a gift of a new library, his only such work outside Florence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url = |title = The Importance of Cosimo de Medici in Library History |last = Meehan |first = William F. |date = 2007 |journal = Indiana Libraries Vol. 26 Number 3 |doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> His libraries were noted for their renaissance style of architecture and important artwork.
[[File:Pontormo - Ritratto di Cosimo il Vecchio - Google Art Project.jpg|309x309px|left|thumb|Portrait by [[Jacopo Pontormo]]; the laurel branch (''il Broncone'') was a symbol used also by his heirs<ref>After the return of the Medici in 1512, Lorenzo di Piero formed a ''compagnia'' for carnival 1513, and called it ''Broncone''; the Pontormo portrait was commissioned by Goro Gheri, Lorenzo's secretary. {{cite journal|first=John |last=Shearman|title=Pontormo and Andrea Del Sarto, 1513|journal=The Burlington Magazine|volume=104|issue=716 |date=November 1962|pages=450, 478–483}}</ref>]]Cosimo de' Medici also founded the first public library in Florence, in 1444 at [[San Marco, Florence|San Marco]]. It was of central importance to the [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] movement in Florence during the Renaissance. It was designed by [[Michelozzo]], a student of [[Lorenzo Ghiberti|Ghiberti]] who later collaborated with [[Donatello]] and was also a good friend and patron to Cosimo. Cosimo contributed the funds necessary to repair the library and provide it with a book collection, which people were allowed to use at no charge. "That Cosimo de'Medici was able to finance the construction of such a site placed him in a privileged position of leadership in the city. He hand-selected those individuals who were given access to this laboratory of learning, and, through this social dynamic, he actively shaped the politics of the Republic."<ref>{{Cite journal |url = |title = Florentine Convent as Practiced Place; Cosimo de'Medici, Fra Angelico, and the Public Library of San Marco |last = Terry-Fritsch |first = Allie |date = 2012 |journal = Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue |doi = |pmid = |access-date = |issue = 18(2–3) |pages = 237}}</ref> He also commissioned Michelangelo to design a library for his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. His first library, however, was designed by Michelozzo while the two were in Venice, where Cosimo had been temporarily exiled. In 1433, in gratitude for the hospitality of that city, he left it a gift of a new library, his only such work outside Florence.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url = |title = The Importance of Cosimo de Medici in Library History |last = Meehan |first = William F. |date = 2007 |journal = Indiana Libraries Vol. 26 Number 3 |doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> His libraries were noted for their renaissance style of architecture and important artwork.


[[File:Cosimo Pater Patriae.jpg|thumb|Cosimo ''Pater patriae'', Uffizi Gallery, Florence]]
[[File:Cosimo Pater Patriae.jpg|thumb|Cosimo ''Pater patriae'', Uffizi Gallery, Florence|483x483px]]


Cosimo had grown up with only three books, but by the time he was thirty his collection had grown to 70 volumes. After being introduced to humanism by a group of humanists who had asked for his help in preserving books, he grew to love the movement and gladly sponsored the effort to renew Greek and Roman civilization through literature. The humanists also engendered in him an interest in the collecting of books. "Heartened by the romantic wanderlust of a true bibliophile, the austere banker even embarked on several journeys in the hunt for books, while guaranteeing just about any undertaking that involved books. He financed trips to nearly every European town as well as to Syria, Egypt, and Greece organized by [[Poggio Bracciolini|Poggio]], his chief book scout."<ref name=":0" /> He engaged 45 copyists under the bookseller [[Vespasiano da Bisticci]] to transcribe manuscripts, and paid off the debts of [[Niccolò de' Niccoli]] after his death in exchange for control over his collection of some 800 manuscripts valued at around 6,000 florins.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Renaissance|last=Durant|first=Will|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1953|isbn=|series=[[The Story of Civilization]]|volume=5|location=New York|pages=76–77}}</ref>
Cosimo had grown up with only three books, but by the time he was thirty his collection had grown to 70 volumes. After being introduced to humanism by a group of humanists who had asked for his help in preserving books, he grew to love the movement and gladly sponsored the effort to renew Greek and Roman civilization through literature. The humanists also engendered in him an interest in the collecting of books. "Heartened by the romantic wanderlust of a true bibliophile, the austere banker even embarked on several journeys in the hunt for books, while guaranteeing just about any undertaking that involved books. He financed trips to nearly every European town as well as to Syria, Egypt, and Greece organized by [[Poggio Bracciolini|Poggio]], his chief book scout."<ref name=":0" /> He engaged 45 copyists under the bookseller [[Vespasiano da Bisticci]] to transcribe manuscripts, and paid off the debts of [[Niccolò de' Niccoli]] after his death in exchange for control over his collection of some 800 manuscripts valued at around 6,000 florins.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Renaissance|last=Durant|first=Will|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1953|isbn=|series=[[The Story of Civilization]]|volume=5|location=New York|pages=76–77}}</ref>

Revision as of 13:59, 9 April 2016

This article is about the founder of the Medici dynasty. For the Grand Duke of Tuscany, see Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici
Portrait by Bronzino
Lord of Florence
Reign5 September 1434 – 1 August 1464
PredecessorRinaldo degli Albizzi
SuccessorPiero the Gouty
Full name
Còsimo di Giovanni degli Mèdici
Born(1389-04-10)10 April 1389
Florence, Republic of Florence
Died1 August 1464(1464-08-01) (aged 74)
Careggi, Republic of Florence
Noble familyMedici
Spouse(s)Contessina de' Bardi
IssuePiero the Gouty
Giovanni de' Medici
Carlo di Cosimo de' Medici (illegitimate)
FatherGiovanni di Bicci de' Medici
MotherPiccarda Bueri

'Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici (called 'the Elder' (Italian il Vecchio) and, posthumously, Father of the Nation' (Latin pater patriae); born 10 April 1389 in Florence, died 1 August 1464 in Careggi) was the first of the Medici political dynasty, de facto rulers of Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance. His power derived from his great wealth as a banker, and he was a great patron of learning, the arts and architecture.[1]

Biography

Early Life and the Family Business

Cosimo de' Medici was born in Florence to Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici and his wife Piccarda de' Bueri on 10 April 1389. At the time it was customary to indicate the name of one's father in one's name for the purposes of identification between two like-named individuals; thus Giovanni was the son of Bicci, and Cosimo's name was properly Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici. He had a twin brother, Damiano, who died shortly after birth. The twins were named after the Saints Cosmas and Damian, whose feast day was then celebrated on 27 September; Cosimo would later celebrate his own birthday on that day, rather than on the actual date of his birth.[2] Cosimo also had a brother, Lorenzo the Elder, who was some six years his junior and participated in the family's banking enterprise.

The late medieval mark of the Medici Bank (Banco Medici), used for the authentication of documents. Florenz, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Ms. Panciatichi 71, fol. 1r.

Cosimo inherited both his wealth and his expertise in banking from his father. Giovanni had gone from being a moneylender to joining his the bank of his relative, Vieri di Cambio, before opening up his own bank, Medici Bank, around 1397. He had been independently running Vieri's branch in Rome since the dissolution of the latter's bank into three separate and independent entities, but it was in 1397 that he left Rome to return to his home of Florence. Over the next two decades, the Medici Bank opened branches in Rome, Geneva, Venice, and temporarily in Naples; the majority of profits was derived from Rome. The branch manager in Rome was a papal depositario generale, managing Church finances in return for a commission.[3] Cosimo would later expand the bank throughout western Europe, having offices also in London, Pisa, Avignon, Bruges, Milan,[4] and Lübeck,[5] which rendered it the best bank for the business of the papacy; bishoprics would be able to pay their fees into the nearest branch whose manager would then issue a papal license, and the popes could more easily order a variety of wares - such as spices, textiles, and relics - through the bankers' wholesale trade.[5] In fifteen years he would make a profit of 290,791 florins.[4]

In 1415, Cosimo allegedly accompanied the Antipope John XXIII at the Council of Constance, and in the same year he was named "Priore of the Republic." Later he acted frequently as ambassador, showing a prudence for which he became renowned. In 1410, Giovanni had lent John XXIII, who was then called Baldassare Cosa, the money to buy himself into the office of cardinal, which he repaid by making the Medici Bank head of all Papal finances. This gave the Medici family tremendous power, allowing them to threaten defaulting debtors with excommunication, for instance.[6] Misfortune hit the Medici Bank this year when the Council of Constance unseated John XXIII, thus taking away the near monopoly they had held on the finances of the Curia; thereafter the Medici Bank had to compete with other banks. However, after the Spini Bank went insolvent in 1420, they again secured priority.[3]

Giovanni withdrew from the bank in 1420, leaving its leadership to both of his sons. He left them 179,221 florins upon his death in 1429.[7] Two-thirds of this came from the business in Rome, while only a tenth came from Florence; even Venice offered better business than Florence. The brothers would earn two-thirds of the profits from the bank, with the other third going to a partner. Besides the bank, the family owned much land in the area surrounding Florence, including Mugello, the place from which the family originally came.[8]

Florentine Politics

His power over Florence stemmed from his wealth, which he used to control votes. As Florence was proud of its 'democracy', he pretended to have little political ambition, and did not often hold public office. Aeneas Sylvius, Bishop of Siena and later Pope Pius II, said of him:

Cosimo goes into exile, Palazzo Vecchio

Political questions are settled in [Cosimo's] house. The man he chooses holds office...He it is who decides peace and war...He is king in all but name."[9]

In 1433 Cosimo's power over Florence, which he exerted without occupying public office, began to look like a menace to the anti-Medici party, led by figures such as Palla Strozzi and the Albizzi family, headed by Rinaldo degli Albizzi: in September of that year he was imprisoned in the Palazzo Vecchio, accused for the failure of the conquest of Lucca, but he managed to turn the jail term into one of exile despite the fact that some, such as Filelfo, demanded his execution.[10] He went to Padua and then to Venice, taking his bank along with him and finding friends and sympathizers wherever he went. Venice sent an envoy to Florence on his behalf, requested they rescind the order of banishment. When they refused, Cosimo settled down in Venice. However, prompted by his influence and his money, others followed him; within a year, the flight of capital from Florence was so great that the decree of exile had to be lifted. Cosimo returned a year later in 1434, to greatly influence the government of Florence (especially through the Pitti and Soderini families) and to lead by example for the last thirty years of his life of seventy-five years.

Cosimo's time in exile instilled in him the need to squash the factionalism that resulted in his exile in the first place. In order to do this, Cosimo, with the help of favorable priors in the Signoria, instigated a series of constitutional changes to secure his power through influence.

Following the death of Filippo Maria Visconti, who had ruled the Duchy of Milan from 1412 until his death in 1447, Cosimo sent Francesco I Sforza to establish himself in Milan to prevent the impending advance of the Republic of Venice. The resultant balance of power with Milan and Florence on the one side and Venice and the Kingdom of Naples on the other, created nearly half a century of peace and allowed the development of the Renaissance in Italy.

In terms of foreign policy, Cosimo worked to create peace in Northern Italy through the creation of a balance of power between Florence, Naples, Venice and Milan during the wars in Lombardy, and discouraging outside powers (notably the French and the Holy Roman Empire) from interfering. In 1439 he was also instrumental in convincing pope Eugene IV to move the Ecumenical council of Ferrara to Florence. The arrival of notable Byzantine figures from the Empire in the East, including Emperor John VIII Palaiologos himself, started the boom of Greek culture and arts in the city.

A posthumous portrait of Contessina de' Bardi, Cosimo's wife, attributed to Cristofano dell'Altissimo, 16th century.
The floor tomb of Cosimo de' Medici in San Lorenzo, Florence.

Family and Death

About 1415, Cosimo married Contessina de' Bardi (the daughter of Giovanni, count of Vernio, and Cammilla Pannocchieschi).[11] The wedding was arranged by his father as an effort to reaffirm relations with the long-standing noble Bardi family, who had operated one of the richest banks in Europe until its spectacular collapse in 1345; they nevertheless remained highly influential in the financial sphere. Only part of the Bardi family were involved in this marriage alliance, for some of the branches considered themselves the opponents of the Medici clan.[12] The couple had two sons: Piero the Gouty and Giovanni de' Medici.[13] Cosimo also had an illegitimate son, Carlo de' Medici by a Circassian slave, who would go on to become a prelate.

On his death in 1464 at Careggi, Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero "the Gouty", father of Lorenzo the Magnificent or Il Magnifico. After his death the Signoria awarded him the title Pater Patriae, "Father of the Country", an honor once awarded to Cicero, and had it carved upon his tomb in the Church of San Lorenzo.

Patronage

Cosimo de' Medici used his vast fortune to control the Florentine political system and sponsor a series of artistic accomplishments.[14]

Arts

Donatello's David, a Medici commission

Cosimo was also noted for his patronage of culture and the arts during the Renaissance, liberally spending the family fortune (which his astute business sense considerably increased) to enrich Florence. According to Salviati's[disambiguation needed] Zibaldone, Cosimo stated: "All those things have given me the greatest satisfaction and contentment because they are not only for the honor of God but are likewise for my own remembrance. For fifty years, I have done nothing else but earn money and spend money; and it became clear that spending money gives me greater pleasure than earning it."[15]

Additionally, his patronage of the arts both recognized and proclaimed the humanistic responsibility of the civic duty that came with wealth.[16]

Cosimo hired the young Michelozzo Michelozzi to create what is today perhaps the prototypical Florentine palazzo, the austere and magnificent Palazzo Medici. The building still includes, as its only 15th-century interior that is largely intact, the Magi Chapel frescoed by Benozzo Gozzoli, completed in 1461 with portraits of members of the Medici family parading through Tuscany in the guise of the Three Wise Men. He was a patron and confidante of Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, and Donatello, whose famed David and Judith Slaying Holofernes were Medici commissions. Cosimo's patronage enabled the eccentric and bankrupt architect Brunelleschi to complete the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore (the "Duomo") which was perhaps his crowning achievement as sponsor.

Libraries

Portrait by Jacopo Pontormo; the laurel branch (il Broncone) was a symbol used also by his heirs[17]

Cosimo de' Medici also founded the first public library in Florence, in 1444 at San Marco. It was of central importance to the humanist movement in Florence during the Renaissance. It was designed by Michelozzo, a student of Ghiberti who later collaborated with Donatello and was also a good friend and patron to Cosimo. Cosimo contributed the funds necessary to repair the library and provide it with a book collection, which people were allowed to use at no charge. "That Cosimo de'Medici was able to finance the construction of such a site placed him in a privileged position of leadership in the city. He hand-selected those individuals who were given access to this laboratory of learning, and, through this social dynamic, he actively shaped the politics of the Republic."[18] He also commissioned Michelangelo to design a library for his grandson, Lorenzo de' Medici. His first library, however, was designed by Michelozzo while the two were in Venice, where Cosimo had been temporarily exiled. In 1433, in gratitude for the hospitality of that city, he left it a gift of a new library, his only such work outside Florence.[19] His libraries were noted for their renaissance style of architecture and important artwork.

Cosimo Pater patriae, Uffizi Gallery, Florence

Cosimo had grown up with only three books, but by the time he was thirty his collection had grown to 70 volumes. After being introduced to humanism by a group of humanists who had asked for his help in preserving books, he grew to love the movement and gladly sponsored the effort to renew Greek and Roman civilization through literature. The humanists also engendered in him an interest in the collecting of books. "Heartened by the romantic wanderlust of a true bibliophile, the austere banker even embarked on several journeys in the hunt for books, while guaranteeing just about any undertaking that involved books. He financed trips to nearly every European town as well as to Syria, Egypt, and Greece organized by Poggio, his chief book scout."[19] He engaged 45 copyists under the bookseller Vespasiano da Bisticci to transcribe manuscripts, and paid off the debts of Niccolò de' Niccoli after his death in exchange for control over his collection of some 800 manuscripts valued at around 6,000 florins.[20]

Philosophy

In the realm of philosophy, Cosimo, influenced by the lectures of Gemistus Plethon, supported Marsilio Ficino and his attempts at reviving Neo-Platonism. Cosimo commissioned Ficino's Latin translation of the complete works of Plato (the first ever complete translation) and collected a vast library which he shared with intellectuals such as Niccolo Niccoli and Leonardo Bruni.[21] He also established a Platonic Academy in Florence in 1445 for the study of Plato.[22] He provided his grandson, Lorenzo il Magnifico, with an education in the studia humanitatis. Cosimo had an inestimable influence on Renaissance intellectual life, diminishing the influence of Scholasticism with his financing of the reintroduction of the Greek classics.

See also

References

  1. ^ Strathern, Paul (2005). The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance. London: Pimlico. pp. 45–126. ISBN 9781844130986.
  2. ^ Dale Kent: Medici, Cosimo de’. In: Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani, Vol. 73, Rome 2009, pg. 36–43, here: 36; Susan McKillop: Dante and Lumen Christi: A Proposal for the Meaning of the Tomb of Cosimo de’ Medici. In: Francis Ames-Lewis (Ed.): Cosimo ‘il Vecchio’ de’ Medici, 1389–1464, Oxford 1992, pg. 245–301, here: 245–248.
  3. ^ a b George Holmes: How the Medici became the Pope’s Bankers. In: Nicolai Rubinstein (Ed.): Florentine Studies. Politics and Society in Renaissance Florence, London 1968, pp. 357–380; Raymond de Roover: The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494, Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, p. 46 f., 198, 203; Volker Reinhardt: Die Medici, 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, S. 21; John R. Hale: Die Medici und Florenz, Stuttgart 1979, p. 13; Alison Williams Lewin: Negotiating Survival, Madison 2003, p. 210 f.
  4. ^ a b Setton, Kenneth M. [ed.] (1970). The Renaissance: Maker of Modern Man. National Geographic Society. p. 46. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  5. ^ a b Hallam, Elizabeth (1988). The War of the Roses. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 111.
  6. ^ Hallam, Elizabeth (Ed.) (1988). The Wars of the Roses. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 110.
  7. ^ Burckhardt, Jakob (1960). The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. The New American Library, inc. p. 900.
  8. ^ Heinrich Lang: Zwischen Geschäft, Kunst und Macht. In: Mark Häberlein et al. (Ed.): Generationen in spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Städten (ca. 1250–1750), Konstanz 2011, pp. 43–71, here: 48 f.; Volker Reinhardt: Die Medici, 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 21; Raymond de Roover: The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank 1397–1494, Cambridge (Massachusetts)/London 1963, S. 52; John R. Hale: Die Medici und Florenz, Stuttgart 1979, p. 14.
  9. ^ Quoted by C.Hibbert in The Rise and Fall of the House of Medici, 1974 in Martin Longman, Italian Renaissance (Longman, 1992).
  10. ^ Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. The Story of Civilization. Vol. 5. New York: New York. p. 193.
  11. ^ Tomas 2003, p. 16.
  12. ^ Volker Reinhardt: Die Medici, 4., revised edition, Munich 2007, p. 20 f.; Dale Kent: The Rise of the Medici, Oxford 1978, p. 40 f., 49–61.
  13. ^ Tomas 2003, p. 7.
  14. ^ R. de Roover, The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 1397–1494 (Cambridge, MA, 1963), p. 28.
  15. ^ Taylor, F.H. (1948). The taste of angels, a history of art collecting from Rameses to Napoleon. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 65–66.
  16. ^ Jurdjevic, Mark (1999). "Civic Humanism and the Rise of the Medici". Renaissance Quarterly. 52 (4): 994–1020.
  17. ^ After the return of the Medici in 1512, Lorenzo di Piero formed a compagnia for carnival 1513, and called it Broncone; the Pontormo portrait was commissioned by Goro Gheri, Lorenzo's secretary. Shearman, John (November 1962). "Pontormo and Andrea Del Sarto, 1513". The Burlington Magazine. 104 (716): 450, 478–483.
  18. ^ Terry-Fritsch, Allie (2012). "Florentine Convent as Practiced Place; Cosimo de'Medici, Fra Angelico, and the Public Library of San Marco". Medieval Encounters: Jewish, Christian and Muslim Culture in Confluence and Dialogue (18(2–3)): 237.
  19. ^ a b Meehan, William F. (2007). "The Importance of Cosimo de Medici in Library History". Indiana Libraries Vol. 26 Number 3.
  20. ^ Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. The Story of Civilization. Vol. 5. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 76–77.
  21. ^ Kent, Dale V. Cosimo de' Medici and the Florentine Renaissance: The patron's oeuvre. New Haven: Yale UP, 2000, pp. 34–8.
  22. ^ Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. The Story of Civilization. Vol. 5. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 80.

Sources

  • Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860) 1878.
  • Connell, William. Society and Individual in Renaissance Florence, 2002.
  • Cook, Jon (2003). "Why Renaissance? Why Florence?" History Review, 47, 44–46.
  • De Roover, R. The Rise and Decline of the Medici Bank, 1397–1494. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
  • Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. The Story of Civilization. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1953.
  • Guerrieri, Francesco; Fabbri, Patrizia (1996). Palaces of Florence. Rizzoli. for the Palazzo Medici.
  • Kent, Dale. Cosimo De' Medici and the Florentine Renaissance: The patron's oeuvre. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.
  • Martin Roberts, Italian Renaissance. Longman, 1992.
  • Meehan, William F. III (2007). "The Importance of Cosimo de Medici in Library History." Indiana libraries, 26(3), 15–17. Retrieved from: http://hdl.handle.net/1805/1579
  • Parks, Tim. Medici Money: Banking, Metaphysics, and Art in Fifteenth-Century Florence. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005.
  • Padgett John F., Ansell Christopher K.,"Robust Action and the Rise of the Medici. 1400–1434", The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 98, No. 6. (May, 1993), pp. 1259–1319.
  • Tomas, Natalie R. (2003). The Medici Women: Gender and Power in Renaissance Florence. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 0754607771.
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