Rhodesian Bush War: Difference between revisions
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===Rhodesian equipment and personnel=== |
===Rhodesian equipment and personnel=== |
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The war saw the extensive operation of Rhodesian regulars as well as elite units such as the [[Selous Scouts]] and the Rhodesian SAS. The Rhodesian Army fought bitterly against the black nationalist guerrillas. The Rhodesian Army comprised regiments such as the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]] and conscription was eventually introduced to supplement the professional soldiers and the many volunteers from overseas. By 1978 all white males up to the age of 60 were subject to periodic call-up into the army; younger men up to 35 might expect to spend alternating blocks of six weeks in the army and at home. Many of the overseas volunteers came from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[South Africa]], [[Portugal]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. The Rhodesian Army was, considering the arms embargo, well-equipped. The standard infantry weapon was the Belgian [[FN FAL]] Rifle which was procured via South Africa however older weapons such as the British [[Lee-Enfield]] [[bolt action]] rifle were used by reservists and the [[British South Africa Police]]. After [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|UDI]] Rhodesia was heavily reliant on South African and domestically-produced weapons and equipment. |
The war saw the extensive operation of Rhodesian regulars as well as elite units such as the [[Selous Scouts]] and the Rhodesian SAS. The Rhodesian Army fought bitterly against the black nationalist guerrillas. The Rhodesian Army comprised regiments such as the [[Rhodesian African Rifles]] and conscription was eventually introduced to supplement the professional soldiers and the many volunteers from overseas. By 1978 all white males up to the age of 60 were subject to periodic call-up into the army; younger men up to 35 might expect to spend alternating blocks of six weeks in the army and at home. Many of the overseas volunteers came from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[South Africa]], [[Portugal]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. The Rhodesian Army was, considering the arms embargo, well-equipped. The standard infantry weapon was the Belgian [[FN FAL]] Rifle which was procured via South Africa however older weapons such as the British [[Lee-Enfield]] [[bolt action]] rifle were used by reservists and the [[British South Africa Police]]. Other weapons included the [[bren]] LMG, [[sten]] SMG, [[GPMG]] MMG, [[L16 81mm Mortar|81 mm mortar]], and [[M18A1 Claymore Antipersonnel Mine|Claymore]] mines. After [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|UDI]] Rhodesia was heavily reliant on South African and domestically-produced weapons and equipment. |
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{{Politics of Rhodesia}} |
{{Politics of Rhodesia}} |
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The [[Rhodesian Air Force]] (RhAF) operated a variety of equipment and carried out numerous roles. When the arms embargo was introduced, the RhAF was suddenly lacking spare parts from external suppliers and was forced to find alternate means of keeping their aircraft flying. The RhAF was relatively well equipped and used a large proportion of equipment which was obsolete, such as the [[World War II|Second World War]] vintage [[C-47 Skytrain|Douglas Dakota]] transport aircraft and the early British jet-fighter the [[De Havilland Vampire]], as well as more modern types of aircraft like the [[Hawker Hunter]] |
The [[Rhodesian Air Force]] (RhAF) operated a variety of equipment and carried out numerous roles. When the arms embargo was introduced, the RhAF was suddenly lacking spare parts from external suppliers and was forced to find alternate means of keeping their aircraft flying. The RhAF was relatively well equipped and used a large proportion of equipment which was obsolete, such as the [[World War II|Second World War]] vintage [[C-47 Skytrain|Douglas Dakota]] transport aircraft and the early British jet-fighter the [[De Havilland Vampire]], as well as more modern types of aircraft like the [[Hawker Hunter]], [[Aérospatiale Alouette III]] helicopters, and [[English Electric Canberra|Canberra]] bombers. |
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At the beginning of the war much of Rhodesia's military hardware was of British and [[Commonwealth]] origin but during the course of the conflict new equipment such as armoured cars was procured from the South Africans or was produced by the Rhodesians themselves. The means with which the Rhodesians procured weaponry meant that the arms embargoes had little effect on the Rhodesian war effort. During the course of the war most citizens carried personal weapons and it was not unusual to see housewives carrying submachine guns. A [[siege mentality]] set in and all civilian transport had to be escorted in convoys. Farms and villages in rural areas were attacked frequently and ambushes were the norm. |
At the beginning of the war much of Rhodesia's military hardware was of British and [[Commonwealth]] origin but during the course of the conflict new equipment such as armoured cars was procured from the South Africans or was produced by the Rhodesians themselves. The means with which the Rhodesians procured weaponry meant that the arms embargoes had little effect on the Rhodesian war effort. During the course of the war most citizens carried personal weapons and it was not unusual to see housewives carrying submachine guns. A [[siege mentality]] set in and all civilian transport had to be escorted in convoys. Farms and villages in rural areas were attacked frequently and ambushes were the norm. |
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Oficers received training in the then-Marxist country of [[Ethiopia]], whose armed forces had extensive combat experience. In typical guerrilla style, the rebels were armed with a wide range of weapons but the most common infantry weapon was the [[AK-47]]. The nationalist movements also used a variety of Soviet and Chinese-made equipment which eventually included [[surface-to-air missile]]s and [[land mine]]s. The use of ambushes and surprise attacks on civilian convoys and rural farms and villages was a common tactic as these areas were often hard to defend. Nationalists derailed several [[National Railways of Zimbabwe|Rhodesian Railways]] trains with explosives. |
Oficers received training in the then-Marxist country of [[Ethiopia]], whose armed forces had extensive combat experience. In typical guerrilla style, the rebels were armed with a wide range of weapons but the most common infantry weapon was the [[AK-47]]. The nationalist movements also used a variety of Soviet and Chinese-made equipment which eventually included [[surface-to-air missile]]s and [[land mine]]s. The use of ambushes and surprise attacks on civilian convoys and rural farms and villages was a common tactic as these areas were often hard to defend. Nationalists derailed several [[National Railways of Zimbabwe|Rhodesian Railways]] trains with explosives. |
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Neither movement was able to engender real support amongst the ''urban'' populations, sparing the Rhodesian security forces an urban insurgency. Effective police work, based on intelligence, stamped out any urban threat. The insurgency was a rural one with both movements attempting to secure peasant support and to recruit fighters while harassing the administration and the white inhabitants. Unlike the town-dewellers, the rural whites faced danger and many were killed but in 1979 there were still 6 |
Neither movement was able to engender real support amongst the ''urban'' populations, sparing the Rhodesian security forces an urban insurgency. Effective police work, based on intelligence, stamped out any urban threat. The insurgency was a rural one with both movements attempting to secure peasant support and to recruit fighters while harassing the administration and the white inhabitants. Unlike the town-dewellers, the rural whites faced danger and many were killed but in 1979 there were still 6,000 white farmers on the land even though it was simple enough to drive them off it. They were vulnerable every time they left the homestead. |
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===ZANLA=== |
===ZANLA=== |
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ZANLA, in the end, was present on a more or less permanent basis in over half the country and in addition was fighting a civil war against ZIPRA despite the union of their political parties after 1978. It was ZANLA's intention to occupy the ground, supplant the administration in rural areas and then mount the final conventional campaign. ZANLA concentrated on the politicisation of the rural areas using force, persuasion, ties of kinship and even the influence of the spirit mediums. |
ZANLA, in the end, was present on a more or less permanent basis in over half the country and in addition was fighting a civil war against ZIPRA despite the union of their political parties after 1978. It was ZANLA's intention to occupy the ground, supplant the administration in rural areas and then mount the final conventional campaign. ZANLA concentrated on the politicisation of the rural areas using force, persuasion, ties of kinship and even the influence of the spirit mediums. |
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ZANLA tried to paralyse the Rhodesian effort and economy by planting Soviet anti-tank landmines in the roads. From 1972 |
ZANLA tried to paralyse the Rhodesian effort and economy by planting Soviet anti-tank landmines in the roads. From 1972 to 1980 there were 2,504 vehicle detonations of landmines (mainly Soviet TM46s), killing 632 people and injuring 4,410. The mining of roads increased as the war intensified; indeed the increase from 1978 (894 mines or 2.44 mines were detonated or recovered a day) to 1979 (2,089 mines or 5.72 mines a day) was 233.7%. In response, the Rhodesians co-operated with the South Africans to develop a range of mine protected vehicles. They began by replacing air in tyres with water which absorbed some of the blast and reduced the heat of the explosion. They protected the bodies with steel deflector plates, sandbags and mine conveyor belting. V shapes dispersed blast (the development led to the South African Mamba and Nyala wheeled light troop carriers). Deaths in such vehicles became unusual events. Responding to the mines, Rhodesian engineers also built the world's first mine detection vehicles. |
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ZANLA, aided by its FRELIMO Allies, bore the brunt of the "Fire Force" and external camp attacks while establishing themselves amongst the rural people. Because Mugabe and his party later won the election it has been assumed that he had very strong support among the Shona. Nonetheless, the relief when ZANLA elements departed or were driven out was palpable. Some research <ref>by Norma Kriger, for example</ref> has concluded that ZANLA had to terrorise to achieve popular support. This was certainly true after the Muzorewa election in April 1979 when the rural people defied ZANLA's orders to the contrary and turned out in great numbers to vote. The result of the election stunned the cadres until Thatcher's refusal to recognise its outcome enheartened them. To regain control, ZANLA returned to terrorism. None of this implies that the Rhodesian Front Government had any chance of retaining even the passive acceptance of the tribal people. Muzozewa, however, given international recognition, had every prospect of engendering support and loyalty. |
ZANLA, aided by its FRELIMO Allies, bore the brunt of the "Fire Force" and external camp attacks while establishing themselves amongst the rural people. Because Mugabe and his party later won the election it has been assumed that he had very strong support among the Shona. Nonetheless, the relief when ZANLA elements departed or were driven out was palpable. Some research <ref>by Norma Kriger, for example</ref> has concluded that ZANLA had to terrorise to achieve popular support. This was certainly true after the Muzorewa election in April 1979 when the rural people defied ZANLA's orders to the contrary and turned out in great numbers to vote. The result of the election stunned the cadres until Thatcher's refusal to recognise its outcome enheartened them. To regain control, ZANLA returned to terrorism. None of this implies that the Rhodesian Front Government had any chance of retaining even the passive acceptance of the tribal people. Muzozewa, however, given international recognition, had every prospect of engendering support and loyalty. |
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In contrast to ZANLA's Mozambique links, Nkomo's ZIPRA was more orientated towards Zambia for local bases. However, this was not always with full Zambian government support, and by 1979 ZIPRA's forces, combined with ANC and SWAPO forces in Zambia, represented a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA did not grow as quickly or elaborately as ZANLA, but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka, Zambia. <ref>Rasmussen & Rubert</ref> |
In contrast to ZANLA's Mozambique links, Nkomo's ZIPRA was more orientated towards Zambia for local bases. However, this was not always with full Zambian government support, and by 1979 ZIPRA's forces, combined with ANC and SWAPO forces in Zambia, represented a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA did not grow as quickly or elaborately as ZANLA, but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka, Zambia. <ref>Rasmussen & Rubert</ref> |
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[[ZIPRA]] |
[[ZIPRA]] was responsible for an attack on a civilian Air Rhodesia Viscount airplane, using a SAM 7 surface-to-air missile. Ten out of the eighteen civilians on board who survived the crash were subsequently abused, raped and massacred by the ZIPRA terrorists. Nkomo later spoke to the BBC of the attack in a way some considered gloating. In his memoirs, ''Story of My Life'' (1985), Nkomo expressed regret for the shooting down of both planes which goes contrary to his earlier broadcast sentiment. |
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ZIPRA took advice from its Soviet instructors in formulating its version of popular revolution and its strategy for taking over the country. On the advice of the Soviets, ZIPRA built up its conventional forces, motorised with Soviet armoured vehicles, in neighbouring Zambia. ZIPRA's (i.e. ZAPU's) intention was to allow ZANLA to bring the Rhodesian forces to the point of defeat, and then to take the victory from the much lighter forces of ZANLA and the essentially defeated Rhodesians. ZIPRA kept a light presence within Rhodesia, reconnoitering, keeping contact with the peasants and sometimes skirmishing with the ZANLA. To an extent, ZIPRA's conventional threat actually distracted the Rhodesians from fighting ZANLA. |
ZIPRA took advice from its Soviet instructors in formulating its version of popular revolution and its strategy for taking over the country. On the advice of the Soviets, ZIPRA built up its conventional forces, motorised with Soviet armoured vehicles, in neighbouring Zambia. ZIPRA's (i.e. ZAPU's) intention was to allow ZANLA to bring the Rhodesian forces to the point of defeat, and then to take the victory from the much lighter forces of ZANLA and the essentially defeated Rhodesians. ZIPRA kept a light presence within Rhodesia, reconnoitering, keeping contact with the peasants and sometimes skirmishing with the ZANLA. To an extent, ZIPRA's conventional threat actually distracted the Rhodesians from fighting ZANLA. |
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== Timeline of the war == |
== Timeline of the war == |
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The conflict intensified after the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] from Britain |
The conflict intensified after the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] from Britain on [[11 November]] [[1965]]. [[International sanctions|Sanctions]] were implemented by the British government after UDI, and member states of the [[United Nations]] endorsed the British [[embargo]]. The Rhodesian Forces were hampered by a lack of modern equipment but used other means to receive vital war supplies such as receiving [[Petroleum|oil]] via the supportive government of South Africa. |
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In the latter months of [[1971]], the black nationalist factions united and formed a coalition which became known as the joint guerrilla alliance to overthrow the government. |
In the latter months of [[1971]], the black nationalist factions united and formed a coalition which became known as the joint guerrilla alliance to overthrow the government. |
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The black guerrillas operated from secluded bases in neighbouring Zambia and from [[FRELIMO]]-controlled areas in the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony of [[Mozambique]] and made periodic raids into Rhodesia. With the decline of the Portuguese empire |
The black guerrillas operated from secluded bases in neighbouring Zambia and from [[FRELIMO]]-controlled areas in the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony of [[Mozambique]] and made periodic raids into Rhodesia. With the decline of the Portuguese empire from 1974 to 1976, Ian Smith realised his country was now surrounded on three sides by hostile African nations and declared a formal state of emergency in order to combat the rebel guerrillas. |
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Soon Mozambique closed its 800-mile-long border with Rhodesia, but Rhodesian forces often crossed the border in "hot pursuit" raids, attacking guerrillas and their training camps. In 1976, Rhodesian Selous Scout soldiers destroyed a camp containing many hundreds of guerrilla trainees, called cadres. The Rhodesians also operated into [[Zambia]] after Nkomo's nationalists shot down two unarmed [[Vickers Viscount]] civilian airliners with Soviet supplied [[SA-7 Grail|SAM-7]] heat-seeking missiles. As the conflict intensified, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement. However this was rejected by the Rhodesian government as they were unwilling to relinquish political and economic control, and the black nationalists were bitterly divided by feudal, tribal and political differences. |
Soon Mozambique closed its 800-mile-long border with Rhodesia, but Rhodesian forces often crossed the border in "hot pursuit" raids, attacking guerrillas and their training camps. In 1976, Rhodesian Selous Scout soldiers destroyed a camp containing many hundreds of guerrilla trainees, called cadres. The Rhodesians also operated into [[Zambia]] after Nkomo's nationalists shot down two unarmed [[Vickers Viscount]] civilian airliners with Soviet supplied [[SA-7 Grail|SAM-7]] heat-seeking missiles. As the conflict intensified, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement. However this was rejected by the Rhodesian government as they were unwilling to relinquish political and economic control, and the black nationalists were bitterly divided by feudal, tribal and political differences. |
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During 1978, the guerrillas launched an attack on the town of [[Mutare|Umtali]] with intensive mortar fire. In retaliation for these acts the Rhodesian Air Force bombed guerrilla camps 125 miles inside Mozambique, using 'fatigued' [[English Electric Canberra|Canberra B2]] aircraft and [[Hawker Hunter]]s - actively, but clandestinely, supported by several of the more capable Canberra B(I)12 aircraft of the South African Air Force. A number of joint-force bomber raids on 'terr' encampments and assembly areas in Mozambique and Zambia were mounted in 1978, and extensive air reconnaissance and surveillance of guerrilla encampments and logistical build-up was carried out by the South African Air Force on behalf of the |
During 1978, the guerrillas launched an attack on the town of [[Mutare|Umtali]] with intensive mortar fire. In retaliation for these acts the Rhodesian Air Force bombed guerrilla camps 125 miles inside Mozambique, using 'fatigued' [[English Electric Canberra|Canberra B2]] aircraft and [[Hawker Hunter]]s - actively, but clandestinely, supported by several of the more capable Canberra B(I)12 aircraft of the South African Air Force. A number of joint-force bomber raids on 'terr' encampments and assembly areas in Mozambique and Zambia were mounted in 1978, and extensive air reconnaissance and surveillance of guerrilla encampments and logistical build-up was carried out by the South African Air Force on behalf of the RhAF. The increased effectiveness of the bombing and follow-up 'air mobile' strikes using Dakota-dropped parachutists and helicopter 'air cav' techniques had a significant effect on the then-development of the conflict, until a successful 'special forces' raid on the Rhodesian strategic fuel reserves near Salisbury forced the decision to explore a negotiated settlement. The conflict continued until [[1979]] when an agreement was reached on a constitution to transfer power to a moderate black government - the [[Lancaster House Agreement]]. |
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== Resolution == |
== Resolution == |
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[[Image:Rhodesia-GSmedal.jpg|thumb|100px|right|The Rhodesian General Service Medal, awarded to Rhodesian armed forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. The figure featured on the medal is [[Cecil Rhodes]].]] |
[[Image:Rhodesia-GSmedal.jpg|thumb|100px|right|The Rhodesian General Service Medal, awarded to Rhodesian armed forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. The figure featured on the medal is [[Cecil Rhodes]].]] |
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Under the agreement of March 1978, the country was to be known as [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]], and in the general election of [[24 April]] |
Under the agreement of March 1978, the country was to be known as [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]], and in the general election of [[24 April]] [[1979]], Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] became the country's first black prime minister. |
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The two major black nationalist (nominally communist) factions led by Nkomo and Mugabe denounced the new government as a puppet of the white Rhodesians and the fighting continued. Later in 1979, the new [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] British government under [[Margaret Thatcher]] called a peace conference in London to which all nationalist leaders were included. The outcome of this conference would become known as the [[Lancaster House Agreement]]. The economic sanctions imposed on the country were lifted in late 1979, and British rule resumed under a transitional arrangement leading to full independence. |
The two major black nationalist (nominally communist) factions led by Nkomo and Mugabe denounced the new government as a puppet of the white Rhodesians and the fighting continued. Later in 1979, the new [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] British government under [[Margaret Thatcher]] called a peace conference in London to which all nationalist leaders were included. The outcome of this conference would become known as the [[Lancaster House Agreement]]. The economic sanctions imposed on the country were lifted in late 1979, and British rule resumed under a transitional arrangement leading to full independence. |
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The elections of [[1980]] resulted in victory for Robert Mugabe, who assumed the post of prime minister after his [[Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front|ZANU-PF]] party received approximately 63 percent of the vote. On [[ |
The elections of [[1980]] resulted in victory for Robert Mugabe, who assumed the post of prime minister after his [[Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front|ZANU-PF]] party received approximately 63 percent of the vote. On [[18 April]] of that year, the country gained independence as Zimbabwe. Two years later the capital, Salisbury, was renamed [[Harare]]. |
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Mugabe has referred to the seizure of white-owned farms during the early [[2000s]] as the "Third Chimurenga". |
Mugabe has referred to the seizure of white-owned farms during the early [[2000s]] as the "Third Chimurenga". |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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*[http://members.tripod.com/selousscouts/fireforce_operations.htm FireForce Operations: Helicopter Warfare in Rhodesia: 1962-1980] |
* [http://members.tripod.com/selousscouts/fireforce_operations.htm FireForce Operations: Helicopter Warfare in Rhodesia: 1962-1980] |
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*[http://members.tripod.com/selousscouts/ The Selous Scouts Home Page] a site with a lot of information on the war in general and in the Selous Scouts in particular |
* [http://members.tripod.com/selousscouts/ The Selous Scouts Home Page] a site with a lot of information on the war in general and in the Selous Scouts in particular |
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*[http://www.rhodesia.nl/ Rhodesian and South African Military History]: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980's |
* [http://www.rhodesia.nl/ Rhodesian and South African Military History]: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980's |
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[[Category:History of Zimbabwe]] |
[[Category:History of Zimbabwe]] |
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Revision as of 18:03, 10 November 2006
 | The neutrality of this article is disputed. |
| Rhodesian Bush War | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
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Rhodesia |
ZIPRA | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Ian Smith |
ZANU: Robert Mugabe ZAPU: Joshua Nkomo | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| unknown | unknown | ||||||
| Civilians killed = unknown | |||||||
The Rhodesian Bush War (now officially called the Second Chimurenga by the Mugabe regime,) was a conflict in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) between the white minority government of Ian Smith and the black nationalists of the ZANU and ZAPU movements, led by leftist rebels Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo respectively. It lasted from 1971 to 1979.
Rhodesian forces
Rhodesian equipment and personnel
The war saw the extensive operation of Rhodesian regulars as well as elite units such as the Selous Scouts and the Rhodesian SAS. The Rhodesian Army fought bitterly against the black nationalist guerrillas. The Rhodesian Army comprised regiments such as the Rhodesian African Rifles and conscription was eventually introduced to supplement the professional soldiers and the many volunteers from overseas. By 1978 all white males up to the age of 60 were subject to periodic call-up into the army; younger men up to 35 might expect to spend alternating blocks of six weeks in the army and at home. Many of the overseas volunteers came from Britain, South Africa, Portugal, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. The Rhodesian Army was, considering the arms embargo, well-equipped. The standard infantry weapon was the Belgian FN FAL Rifle which was procured via South Africa however older weapons such as the British Lee-Enfield bolt action rifle were used by reservists and the British South Africa Police. Other weapons included the bren LMG, sten SMG, GPMG MMG, 81 mm mortar, and Claymore mines. After UDI Rhodesia was heavily reliant on South African and domestically-produced weapons and equipment.
.svg) |
|---|
The Rhodesian Air Force (RhAF) operated a variety of equipment and carried out numerous roles. When the arms embargo was introduced, the RhAF was suddenly lacking spare parts from external suppliers and was forced to find alternate means of keeping their aircraft flying. The RhAF was relatively well equipped and used a large proportion of equipment which was obsolete, such as the Second World War vintage Douglas Dakota transport aircraft and the early British jet-fighter the De Havilland Vampire, as well as more modern types of aircraft like the Hawker Hunter, Aérospatiale Alouette III helicopters, and Canberra bombers.
At the beginning of the war much of Rhodesia's military hardware was of British and Commonwealth origin but during the course of the conflict new equipment such as armoured cars was procured from the South Africans or was produced by the Rhodesians themselves. The means with which the Rhodesians procured weaponry meant that the arms embargoes had little effect on the Rhodesian war effort. During the course of the war most citizens carried personal weapons and it was not unusual to see housewives carrying submachine guns. A siege mentality set in and all civilian transport had to be escorted in convoys. Farms and villages in rural areas were attacked frequently and ambushes were the norm.
Unit Composition of Rhodesian Forces
Rhodesian forces consisted of the Army and the Rhodesian Air Force.
The Rhodesian army consisted of:
- Army Headquarters Army HQ
- Four Brigade HQs (numbered 1 to 4), two District HQs (Salisbury and Midlands), and HQ Special Forces
- The Rhodesian Light Infantry (unofficially the "Rhodesian Foreign Legion", this regiment especially included foreign volunteers)
- C Squadron 22 (Rhodesian) SAS (in 1978 became 1 (Rhodesian) Special Air Service Regiment)
- Selous Scouts
- Grey's Scouts
- The Rhodesia Regiment
- The Rhodesian African Rifles (six independent companies)
- The Rhodesia Regiment (eight battalions, numbered 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10)
- 1 Psychological Operations Unit
- The Rhodesian Defence Regiment (two battalions)
- The Rhodesian Intelligence Corps
- The Rhodesian Armoured Car Regiment
- The Rhodesian Artillery (one depot, one field regiment)
- Six Engineer Squadrons (numbered 2, 3, 4, 6, 7) 1 Engr Sqn
- 5 Engineer Support Squadron
- Three Brigade Signals Squadrons (numbered 1 to 3), 41 Troop 4 (Bde.) Signals Squadron, and three Signal Squadrons numbered 8, 10-12
- Two Services Area HQs (Matabeleland and Mashonaland)
- Two Ordnance and Supplies Depots (Bulowayo, Salisbury)
- Two Base Workshops (Bulowayo, Salisbury)
- 1 Air Supply Platoon
- Three Maintenance Companies (numbered 1 to 3)
- Three Medical Companies (1, 2, 5) and the Army Health Unit
- Tsanga Lodge
- Five Provost Platoons (numbered 1 to 5) and the Army Detention Barracks
- Six Pay Companies (numbered 1 to 5, 7)
- Rhodesian Army Education Corps
- Rhodesian Corps of Chaplains
- Army Records, and Army Data Processing Unit
- Rail Transport Organisation Platoon
- 1 Military Postal Platoon
- Training establishments: School of Infantry, 19 Corps Training Depot, School of Military Engineering, School of Signals, Services Training School, Services Trade Training Centre, Medical Training School, School of Military Police, Pay Corps Training School, School of Military Administration.
Nationalist rebel equipment and personnel
The two major armed groups campaigning against Ian Smith's government were:
- ZANLA (Zimbabwe National Liberation Army), the armed wing of ZANU Zimbabwe African National Union.
- ZIPRA (Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army), the armed wing of ZAPU Zimbabwe African People's Union.
The ZANLA fighters were mainly Shona and were supported by the Communist China and North Korea, whereas the ZAPU fighters were mainly Ndebele and were supported by the Soviet Union and East Germany. Each group fought separate guerrilla wars against the Rhodesian Security Forces.
Oficers received training in the then-Marxist country of Ethiopia, whose armed forces had extensive combat experience. In typical guerrilla style, the rebels were armed with a wide range of weapons but the most common infantry weapon was the AK-47. The nationalist movements also used a variety of Soviet and Chinese-made equipment which eventually included surface-to-air missiles and land mines. The use of ambushes and surprise attacks on civilian convoys and rural farms and villages was a common tactic as these areas were often hard to defend. Nationalists derailed several Rhodesian Railways trains with explosives.
Neither movement was able to engender real support amongst the urban populations, sparing the Rhodesian security forces an urban insurgency. Effective police work, based on intelligence, stamped out any urban threat. The insurgency was a rural one with both movements attempting to secure peasant support and to recruit fighters while harassing the administration and the white inhabitants. Unlike the town-dewellers, the rural whites faced danger and many were killed but in 1979 there were still 6,000 white farmers on the land even though it was simple enough to drive them off it. They were vulnerable every time they left the homestead.
ZANLA
ZANLA was the armed wing of ZANU.
The organisation had strong links with Mozambique's independence movement, FRELIMO.
ZANLA had Chinese instructors but never actually progressed very far through the Maoist phases of revolution. Unlike ZIPRA, ZANLA was incapable of mounting a conventional threat. It had masses of ill-disciplined and barely trained guerrillas and was unable to seize and retain an objective. Training standards were so low that many cadres did not clean their rifles.
ZANLA, in the end, was present on a more or less permanent basis in over half the country and in addition was fighting a civil war against ZIPRA despite the union of their political parties after 1978. It was ZANLA's intention to occupy the ground, supplant the administration in rural areas and then mount the final conventional campaign. ZANLA concentrated on the politicisation of the rural areas using force, persuasion, ties of kinship and even the influence of the spirit mediums.
ZANLA tried to paralyse the Rhodesian effort and economy by planting Soviet anti-tank landmines in the roads. From 1972 to 1980 there were 2,504 vehicle detonations of landmines (mainly Soviet TM46s), killing 632 people and injuring 4,410. The mining of roads increased as the war intensified; indeed the increase from 1978 (894 mines or 2.44 mines were detonated or recovered a day) to 1979 (2,089 mines or 5.72 mines a day) was 233.7%. In response, the Rhodesians co-operated with the South Africans to develop a range of mine protected vehicles. They began by replacing air in tyres with water which absorbed some of the blast and reduced the heat of the explosion. They protected the bodies with steel deflector plates, sandbags and mine conveyor belting. V shapes dispersed blast (the development led to the South African Mamba and Nyala wheeled light troop carriers). Deaths in such vehicles became unusual events. Responding to the mines, Rhodesian engineers also built the world's first mine detection vehicles.
ZANLA, aided by its FRELIMO Allies, bore the brunt of the "Fire Force" and external camp attacks while establishing themselves amongst the rural people. Because Mugabe and his party later won the election it has been assumed that he had very strong support among the Shona. Nonetheless, the relief when ZANLA elements departed or were driven out was palpable. Some research [1] has concluded that ZANLA had to terrorise to achieve popular support. This was certainly true after the Muzorewa election in April 1979 when the rural people defied ZANLA's orders to the contrary and turned out in great numbers to vote. The result of the election stunned the cadres until Thatcher's refusal to recognise its outcome enheartened them. To regain control, ZANLA returned to terrorism. None of this implies that the Rhodesian Front Government had any chance of retaining even the passive acceptance of the tribal people. Muzozewa, however, given international recognition, had every prospect of engendering support and loyalty.
ZIPRA
ZIPRA was the anti-government force based around the Ndebele ethnicity, led by Joshua Nkomo, and the ZAPU political movement.
In contrast to ZANLA's Mozambique links, Nkomo's ZIPRA was more orientated towards Zambia for local bases. However, this was not always with full Zambian government support, and by 1979 ZIPRA's forces, combined with ANC and SWAPO forces in Zambia, represented a major threat to Zambia's internal security. Because ZAPU's political strategy relied more heavily on negotiations than armed force, ZIPRA did not grow as quickly or elaborately as ZANLA, but by 1979 it had an estimated 20,000 combatants, almost all based in camps around Lusaka, Zambia. [2]
ZIPRA was responsible for an attack on a civilian Air Rhodesia Viscount airplane, using a SAM 7 surface-to-air missile. Ten out of the eighteen civilians on board who survived the crash were subsequently abused, raped and massacred by the ZIPRA terrorists. Nkomo later spoke to the BBC of the attack in a way some considered gloating. In his memoirs, Story of My Life (1985), Nkomo expressed regret for the shooting down of both planes which goes contrary to his earlier broadcast sentiment.
ZIPRA took advice from its Soviet instructors in formulating its version of popular revolution and its strategy for taking over the country. On the advice of the Soviets, ZIPRA built up its conventional forces, motorised with Soviet armoured vehicles, in neighbouring Zambia. ZIPRA's (i.e. ZAPU's) intention was to allow ZANLA to bring the Rhodesian forces to the point of defeat, and then to take the victory from the much lighter forces of ZANLA and the essentially defeated Rhodesians. ZIPRA kept a light presence within Rhodesia, reconnoitering, keeping contact with the peasants and sometimes skirmishing with the ZANLA. To an extent, ZIPRA's conventional threat actually distracted the Rhodesians from fighting ZANLA.
However this ZAPU/ZIPRA strategy for taking over Zimbabwe proved unsuccessful. In the event, the transfer of power to black nationalists took place not by the military take-over expected by ZAPU/ZIPRA, but by a peaceful and internationally supervised election. Rhodesia reverted briefly to real British rule, and a general election took place in early 1980, supervised both by the UK and international forces. Robert Mugabe (of ZANLA/ZANU) won this election, being the only major competitor for the vote of the majority ethnicity, the Shona. Once in power, Mugabe was internationally recognised as Zimbabwe's leader and was given control of the resources of the Rhodesian state, as well as having the backing of the overwhelming majority ethnic group. He was therefore able to quickly and irreversibly consolidate his power in Zimbabwe, forcing ZAPU, and therefore ZIPRA which was ZAPU's army, to give up hope of taking over the country in the place of ZANU/ZANLA.
Timeline of the war
The conflict intensified after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain on 11 November 1965. Sanctions were implemented by the British government after UDI, and member states of the United Nations endorsed the British embargo. The Rhodesian Forces were hampered by a lack of modern equipment but used other means to receive vital war supplies such as receiving oil via the supportive government of South Africa.
In the latter months of 1971, the black nationalist factions united and formed a coalition which became known as the joint guerrilla alliance to overthrow the government.
The black guerrillas operated from secluded bases in neighbouring Zambia and from FRELIMO-controlled areas in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique and made periodic raids into Rhodesia. With the decline of the Portuguese empire from 1974 to 1976, Ian Smith realised his country was now surrounded on three sides by hostile African nations and declared a formal state of emergency in order to combat the rebel guerrillas.
Soon Mozambique closed its 800-mile-long border with Rhodesia, but Rhodesian forces often crossed the border in "hot pursuit" raids, attacking guerrillas and their training camps. In 1976, Rhodesian Selous Scout soldiers destroyed a camp containing many hundreds of guerrilla trainees, called cadres. The Rhodesians also operated into Zambia after Nkomo's nationalists shot down two unarmed Vickers Viscount civilian airliners with Soviet supplied SAM-7 heat-seeking missiles. As the conflict intensified, the United States and Great Britain attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement. However this was rejected by the Rhodesian government as they were unwilling to relinquish political and economic control, and the black nationalists were bitterly divided by feudal, tribal and political differences.
During 1978, the guerrillas launched an attack on the town of Umtali with intensive mortar fire. In retaliation for these acts the Rhodesian Air Force bombed guerrilla camps 125 miles inside Mozambique, using 'fatigued' Canberra B2 aircraft and Hawker Hunters - actively, but clandestinely, supported by several of the more capable Canberra B(I)12 aircraft of the South African Air Force. A number of joint-force bomber raids on 'terr' encampments and assembly areas in Mozambique and Zambia were mounted in 1978, and extensive air reconnaissance and surveillance of guerrilla encampments and logistical build-up was carried out by the South African Air Force on behalf of the RhAF. The increased effectiveness of the bombing and follow-up 'air mobile' strikes using Dakota-dropped parachutists and helicopter 'air cav' techniques had a significant effect on the then-development of the conflict, until a successful 'special forces' raid on the Rhodesian strategic fuel reserves near Salisbury forced the decision to explore a negotiated settlement. The conflict continued until 1979 when an agreement was reached on a constitution to transfer power to a moderate black government - the Lancaster House Agreement.
Resolution
Under the agreement of March 1978, the country was to be known as Zimbabwe Rhodesia, and in the general election of 24 April 1979, Bishop Abel Muzorewa became the country's first black prime minister.
The two major black nationalist (nominally communist) factions led by Nkomo and Mugabe denounced the new government as a puppet of the white Rhodesians and the fighting continued. Later in 1979, the new Conservative British government under Margaret Thatcher called a peace conference in London to which all nationalist leaders were included. The outcome of this conference would become known as the Lancaster House Agreement. The economic sanctions imposed on the country were lifted in late 1979, and British rule resumed under a transitional arrangement leading to full independence.
The elections of 1980 resulted in victory for Robert Mugabe, who assumed the post of prime minister after his ZANU-PF party received approximately 63 percent of the vote. On 18 April of that year, the country gained independence as Zimbabwe. Two years later the capital, Salisbury, was renamed Harare.
Mugabe has referred to the seizure of white-owned farms during the early 2000s as the "Third Chimurenga".
See also
- Rhodesian African Rifles
- Rhodesian Light Infantry
- Selous Scouts
- British South Africa Police
- ZIPRA
- ZANLA
External links
- FireForce Operations: Helicopter Warfare in Rhodesia: 1962-1980
- The Selous Scouts Home Page a site with a lot of information on the war in general and in the Selous Scouts in particular
- Rhodesian and South African Military History: An extensive collection of histories and analysis of Rhodesian and South African military operations, to the early 1980's