York Castle: Difference between revisions
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[[Image:York castle exterior.jpg|thumb|300px|Clifford's Tower, keep of York Castle, on its artificial mound.]] |
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{{Infobox Military Structure |
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'''York Castle''' (of which '''Clifford's Tower''' is a part) is a fortification in the city of [[York]], [[England]]. The principal remains of the 13th century - 14th century [[castle]] are the [[keep]] and some of the [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain wall]]. From its start in 1068 through to the [[English Civil War]], the castle had an eventful history. |
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|name = York Castle |
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|location = [[Yorkshire]], England |
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|coordinates = {{gbmapping|SE603514}} |
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|image = [[Image:York castle exterior.jpg|225px]] |
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|caption = Clifford's Tower, the keep of York Castle |
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|map_type = North Yorkshire |
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|latitude = 53.955833 |
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|longitude = -1.080083 |
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|map_size = 200 |
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|map_alt = |
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|map_caption = Shown within [[Yorkshire]] |
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|type = [[Shell keep]] and [[Ward (fortification)|bailey]] |
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|materials = [[Dolostone|Magnesian limestone]] |
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|height = |
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|condition = Ruined, parts used as a [[York Castle Museum|museum]] and York's [[Crown Court]] |
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|ownership = [[English Heritage]] |
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|open_to_public = |
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|battles = [[Siege of York]] in 1644 |
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|events = [[History of the Jews in England#Early history#Massacres at London and York (1189–1190)|Jewish massacre of 1190]] |
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}} |
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'''York Castle''', today often referred to as '''Clifford's Tower''', is a now ruinous [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[medieval]] [[castle]] in the city of [[York]], [[England]]. Built originally on the orders of [[William I of England|William I]] in order to dominate the former [[Viking]] city of York, the castle suffered a tumultuous early history before developing into a major fortification with extensive water defences, serving as the centre of royal administration in England for part of the 14th century. After a major explosion in 1684 rendered the remaining military defences uninhabitable, York Castle continued to be used as a [[gaol]] and prison until 1929. |
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The first [[motte and bailey]] castle on the site was built in 1068 following the Norman conquest of York. Following the destruction of the castle by rebels and a Viking army in 1069, York Castle was rebuilt and reinforced with extensive water defences, including a [[moat]] and an artificial lake. York Castle formed an important royal fortification in the north of England and was at the heart of the 1190 [[pogrom]] in which 150 local Jews were killed in the castle keep. [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] rebuilt the castle in stone in the middle of the 13th century, creating a [[keep]], later known as Clifford's Tower, with a unique [[quatrefoil]] design, supported by an outer [[Ward (fortification)|bailey wall]] and a substantial [[gatehouse]]. During the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Scottish wars]] between 1298-1338, York Castle was frequently used as the centre of royal administration across England, as well as an important military base for operations. |
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York Castle fell into disrepair by the 15th and 16th centuries, becoming used increasingly as a gaol for both local felons and political prisoners. By the time of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] the castle was estimated to have lost all of its military value but was maintained as a centre of royal authority in York. The outbreak of the [[English Civil War]] in 1642 saw York Castle being repaired and refortified, playing a part in the [[Cavalier|Royalist]] defence of York in 1644 against [[Roundhead|Parliamentary]] forces. York Castle continued to be garrisoned until 1684, when an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower. The castle [[Motte-and-bailey|bailey]] was redeveloped in a [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] style in the 18th century as a centre for [[North Yorkshire|county administration]] in Yorkshire, being used as a gaol and [[debtors' prison]]. [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[prison reform]] led to the creation of a new prison built in a [[Jacobethan|Tudor Gothic]] style on the castle site in 1825; used first as a county and then as a [[military prison]], this facility was demolished in 1935. By the 20th century the ruin of [[Clifford's Tower]] had become a well-known tourist destination and national monument; today the site is owned by [[English Heritage]] and open to the public. |
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==History== |
==History== |
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===11th century=== |
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In 1068, during the [[Norman Conquest]] of [[1066]]–[[1069]], [[William I of England|William I]] had a basic wood [[motte and bailey]] [[castle]] built at York between the Rivers [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|Ouse]] and [[River Foss|Foss]] on the site of the present-day York Castle, and placed it under the command of William Malet. The local population soon harassed the castle and to aid in its defence and to strengthen his grip on the [[North of England]], William had a second castle built in 1069 on what is now [[Baile Hill, York|Baile Hill]] on the west bank of the Ouse. Later that year, a Danish [[Viking]] fleet sailed up the [[Humber]] and attacked the castles and the [[Normans]] occupying them with the assistance of [[Cospatrick of Northumbria|Cospatrick]] and a number of locals. The Normans, as part of their attempt to defend themselves, set fire to the houses around the castles, with the [[unintended consequence]] that the castles too were destroyed. |
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At the time of the [[Norman Conquest]] in 1066, York was a major northern city and had been a Viking capital in the 10th century.<ref>Butler, p.2.</ref> In 1068, [[William I of England|William I]] undertook his first northern expedition.<ref name=BrownP32>Brown, p.32.</ref> As part of this campaign he built a number of castles across the north-east of England, including at York.<ref name=BrownP32/> William's first castle was a basic wood [[motte and bailey]] [[castle]] built at York between the rivers [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|Ouse]] and [[River Foss|Foss]] on the site of the present-day York Castle.<ref name=BrownP32/> Built in haste, contemporary accounts imply it was constructed in only eight days, although this assertion has been challenged.<ref>Brown, p.110; Cooper, p.15.</ref> The motte was originally around 200 feet (71 metres) wide at the base.<ref>Cooper, p.14.</ref> Being built in an urban environment, hundreds of houses had to be destroyed to make way for the development.<ref>Clark, p.239.</ref> [[William Malet (Norman conquest)|William Malet]], the [[High Sheriff of Yorkshire|sheriff of Yorkshire]], was placed in charge of the castle and successfully defended the castle against an immediate uprising by the local population.<ref>Pounds, p.7; Clark, p.239.</ref> |
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Responding to widespread resistance, William ordered all the buildings to be pulled down and all the animals slaughtered in [[Yorkshire]], [[Shropshire]], [[Cheshire]], [[Staffordshire]], [[Nottinghamshire]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[Derbyshire]] and [[County Durham]]. This [[Harrying of the North]] between 1069 and 1070 may have caused over 100,000 human deaths. |
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In response to the worsening security situation, William conducted his second northern campaign in 1069. William built another castle in York, on what is now [[Baile Hill, York|Baile Hill]] on the west bank of the Ouse opposite the first, in an effort to improve his control over the city.<ref>Brown, p.32; Pounds, p.7.</ref> This second castle was also a motte and bailey design, with the Baile Hill motte probably reached by a horizontal bridge and steps cut up the side of the motte.<ref>Brown, p.41; Butler, p.3.</ref> Later that year, a Danish [[Viking]] fleet sailed up the [[Humber]] and attacked both castles with the assistance of [[Cospatrick of Northumbria]] and a number of local rebels.<ref name=HullP98>Hull, p.98.</ref> The Normans, attempting to drive the rebels back out of the city, set fire to some of the houses.<ref name=HullP98/> The fire grew out of control and also set fire to [[York Minster]] and, some argue, the castles as well.<ref>Hull, p.98; Cooper, p.18.</ref><ref group="nb">Hull and others draw on documentary evidence citing the castles were first burnt, then partially dismantled. Cooper disagrees, drawing on archaeological work that shows no evidence of fire having damaged the relevant layers of the mottes.</ref> The castles were captured, partially dismantled and Mallet was taken hostage by the Danes.<ref>Cooper, p.16.</ref> |
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[[Image:Cliffords tower york england small.jpg|thumb|700px|center|View from Clifford's Tower facing York Minster]] |
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William conducted a widespread sequence of punitive operations across the north of England in the aftermath of the attacks between 1069-70.<ref name=HullP98/> This "[[Harrying of the North]]" restored sufficient order to allow the rebuilding of the two castles, again in wood.<ref name=HullP98/> The bailey at York Castle was enlarged slightly in the process; buildings believed to have been inside the bailey at this time include "halls, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges [and] workshops".<ref>Cooper, p.18; Butler, p.13.</ref> By the time the [[Domesday Book]] was written in 1086, York Castle was also surrounded by a water filled [[moat]] and a large artificial lake called the King's Pool, fed from the river Foss by a [[dam]] built especially for the purpose.<ref>Clark, p.255; Cooper pp. 12-3.</ref> More property, including two [[watermill]]s, had to be destroyed to make way for the water defences.<ref>Cooper, p.14.</ref> Over time the Baile Hill site was abandoned in favour of the first castle site, leaving only the motte.<ref>Pounds, p.7.</ref> |
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The Normans then rebuilt the castles, again in wood. By [[1175]], King [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] was able to receive the homage of King [[William of Scotland]] in York Castle. |
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===12th century=== |
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In [[1190]] the wooden tower of York Castle was the last refuge of the 500 [[Jew]]ish residents in York. Richard de Malbis (Richard Malebisse) was a Christian [[debtor]] of [[Aaron of Lincoln]], an influential Jewish [[banker]] of the late 12th century. When a fire broke out in the city of York, de Malbis used the opportunity to incite a Christian mob to attack the home of a recently deceased Jewish agent of Aaron of Lincoln named [[Benedict of York]], killing his widow and children and burning the house. Under the circumstances, [[Josce of York]] (Joseph), the leader of the Jewish community of York, obtained permission from the Christian warden of York Castle to remove his wife and children and the rest of the York Jews into the castle, where they took frightened refuge from the antisemitic mob in a tower that stood where Clifford's Tower now stands. The mob surrounded the castle and when the warden left the castle, the Jews, fearing the entry of the mob, would not readmit him. The warden appealed to the [[High Sheriff|sheriff]], who called out the county militia. The militia laid siege to the tower for several days till on 16 March 1190 the tower caught fire. A few Jews perished in the flames but the majority (including Josce of York and Rabbi [[Yom Tov of Joigny]]) took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the Christian mob. Those who did surrender were killed, despite being promised their lives. At least 499 Jews died (although some authorities put the figure as high as 500). A plaque on the hill on which the tower stands reads: |
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[[Image:Clifford Mound Crosssection.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A cross-section of the motte at York Castle, produced in 1903 by Sir [[Basil Mott]]; "A" marks the 20th century concrete [[underpinning]]s of the motte; the low walls enclosing the base of the motte are a 19th century addition.]] |
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[[Henry II of England|Henry II]] visited York Castle four time during his reign.<ref name=CooperP23>Cooper, p.23.</ref> The royal chambers at the time were inside the keep for safety, and Henry paid £15 for repairs to the keep.<ref name=CooperP23/><ref group="nb">Comparison of medieval financial figures with modern equivalents is challenging, especially with the larger sums of money used for projects such as castles and prior to 1264, when many comparison figures are lacking. The £2,600 used to construct Clifford's Tower in 1244 could equate to from between £1,370,000 and £30,800,000 in 2009 terms, depending on the measure used.</ref> During his 1175 visit, Henry used the castle as the base for receiving the [[homage]] of [[William the Lion]] of Scotland.<ref name=CooperP23/> [[Watermill|Castle mills]] were built close by to support the garrison and the military order of the [[Knights Templar]] were granted ownership of the mills in the mid-12th century.<ref>Cooper, p.117; Pounds, p.193.</ref> The mills proved to be vulnerable to the flooding of the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired.<ref>Pounds, p.193.</ref> |
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In 1190, York Castle played a central role in one of the key [[pogroms]] in England during the medieval period.<ref name=ButlerP14/> The Normans had introduced the first [[Jew]]ish communities into England, where they occupied a [[Economy of England in the Middle Ages#Mid-medieval growth (1100-1290)#Trade, manufacturing and the towns#Jewish contribution to the English economy|special economic role as moneylenders]], an essential but otherwise banned activity.<ref>Hillaby, p.16.</ref> English Jews were subject to considerable religious prejudice and primarily worked from towns and cities in which there was a local royal castle that could provide them with protection in the event of attacks from the majority Christian population.<ref>Hillaby, pp. 21-2.</ref> Royal protection was usually granted as the Norman and [[Angevin]] kings had determined that Jewish property and debts owed to Jews ultimately belonged to the crown, reverting to the king on a Jew's death.<ref>Stenton, p.197.</ref> |
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{{cquotetxt|On the night of Friday 16 March 1190 some 500 Jews of York, having sought protection in the Royal Castle on this site from a mob incited by Richard Malebisse and others, chose to commit mass suicide rather than renounce their faith.}} |
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[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] was coronated in 1189 and announced his intention to join the [[Crusades]], raising new taxes at the same time. Rumours began to spread that the king had ordered that the English Jews be attacked. In York tensions broke out into violence the following year. Richard de Malbis, who owed money to the powerful Jewish merchant [[Aaron of Lincoln]], exploited an accidental house fire to incite a local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron in York.<ref name=ButlerP14/> [[Josce of York]], the leader of the Jewish community, led the local Jewish families into the royal castle, where they took refuge in the wooden keep.<ref name=ButlerP14>Butler, p.14.</ref> The mob surrounded the castle and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation, the Jews, fearing the entry of the mob or being handed over to the [[High Sheriff of Yorkshire|sheriff]], refused to allow him back in.<ref name=ButlerP14/> The constable appealed to the [[High Sheriff|sheriff]], who called out his own men and laid siege to the keep.<ref name=ButlerP14/> The siege continued until 16 March when the Jews' position became untenable.<ref name=ButlerP14/> Their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtob, proposed an act of collective suicide to avoid being killed by the mob and the castle was set on fire to prevent their bodies being mutilated after their deaths.<ref name=ButlerP14/> Several Jews perished in the flames but the majority took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the mob.<ref name=HullP99>Hull, p.99.</ref> A few Jews did surrender, promising to convert to Christianity, but they were killed by the angry crowd.<ref name=ButlerP14/> Around 150 Jews died in total in the massacre.<ref>Butler, p.15.</ref> The keep was rebuilt again in wood on the motte, which was raised in height by 13 feet (4 metres) at a cost of £207.<ref>Hull, p.99; Coooper, p.25.</ref> |
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[[Image:Clifford's Tower-2007 1.jpg|thumb|200px|The walls of the stone tower still stand, but the roof and central pillar are gone.]] |
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===13th and 14th centuries=== |
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The king's [[Lord Chancellor]] dismissed the sheriff and [[constable]] for failing to prevent the [[wikt:massacre|massacre]] and imposed a heavy fine on York's citizens. However, the ringleaders had fled and could not be brought to justice. |
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[[Image:York Castle diorama.JPG|thumb|325px|A reconstruction of York Castle in the 14th century, viewed from the south-east.]] |
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King [[John of England|John]] used York Castle extensively during his reign, using the keep as his personal quarters for his own security.<ref>Cooper, pp. 27-9.</ref> The castle was kept in good repair during the period.<ref>Cooper, p.28.</ref> The first records of the castle being used as a gaol occur in this period, with references to prisoners taken during John's Irish campaigns being held at York Castle.<ref>Cooper, p.91.</ref> By the 13th century there was a well established system of [[castle-guard]]s in place, under which various lands around York were granted in return for the provision of [[knight]]s and [[crossbow|crossbowmen]] to assist in protecting the castle.<ref>Cooper, p.113.</ref> |
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[[Henry III of England|Henry III]] also made extensive use of the castle, but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a gale destroyed the wooden keep on the motte.<ref>Brown, p.86; Cooper, p.31</ref> The keep was apparently not repaired and a building for the king's use was built in the bailey instead.<ref>Cooper, p.32.</ref> In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] visited the castle and ordered it rebuilt in white [[limestone]], at a cost of about ₤2,600.<ref>Hull, p.99; Butler, p.4.</ref> The work was carried out between 1245-70, and included the construction of a towered curtain wall; three gate houses, one of considerable size with two large towers, a smaller water-gate and a small gateway into the city; a chapel ,and a new stone keep, first known as the King's, later Clifford's Tower.<ref>Brown, p.86.; Hull, p.99; Toy, p.133; Cooper, p.85, 87.</ref><ref group="nb">For the purposes of this article, the keep is referred to as Clifford's Tower throughout.</ref> |
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=== The rebuilt castle === |
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By 1194, the [[motte-and-bailey|motte]] was raised in height by 13 ft and the castle was again rebuilt in wood at a cost of £200, and King [[John of England|John]] stayed there in 1200. Unfortunately, a gale in 1228 destroyed the tower on the motte. |
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Clifford's Tower was of an unusual design. The two storey tower has a [[quatrefoil]] plan with four circular lobes. Each lobe measures 22 feet (6.5 metres) across, with walls 9 feet 6 inches (3 metres) thick; at its widest, the tower is 79 feet (24 metres) across.<ref name=ClarkP256>Clark, p.256.</ref> A square gatehouse, 21 feet (6.5 metres) wide, protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes.<ref name=ClarkP256/> There are defensive turrets between the other lobes.<ref name=ClarkP256/> Large [[corbel]]s and a central [[Pier (architecture)|pier]] supported the huge weight of stone and the first floor.<ref>Toy, pp. 134-5.</ref> Loopholes of a design unique to York Castle provided firing points.<ref>Cooper, pp. 42-3.</ref> A [[chapel]] was built over the entrance, measuring 15 feet by 14 feet (4.5 metres by 4.2 metres), doubling as a [[portcullis]] chamber as at [[Harlech Castle|Harlech]] and [[Chepstow Castle|Chepstow castles]].<ref>Clark, p.257.</ref> The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by reducing dead ground visible from the summit of the keep. Although unique to England, the design of the tower closely resembles that at [[Château d'Étampes|Étampes]] in [[France]], and may have influenced the design of the future keep of [[Pontefract Castle]].<ref>Brown, p.86; Butler, p.16.</ref> Henry employed master mason Henry de Rayns and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton for the project, and the cost of the tower accounted for the majority of the overall expenditure on the castle during this period of work.<ref>Hull, p.99; Toy, p.133.</ref> |
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In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] visited the castle and ordered it rebuilt in stone, at a cost of about ₤2,500. The work commenced in 1245, and took some 20 to 25 years as the [[Ward (fortification)|bailey]] received a towered curtain wall and two gateways, and the builders crowned the existing motte with a stone keep, known as the King's Tower. |
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[[Image:Plan of Clifford's Tower.JPG|thumb|left|25-px|A plan of Clifford's Tower. A = Gateway; B= Stairway to Chapel above; C=Staircases to upper levels and parapet; D=Loop hole recesses; E=Well; F=Fireplaces; G=Guardrobe chambers.]] |
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1298 [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] kept his Treasury at the castle while he campaigned against the Scots. |
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The new castle needed constant investment in order to maintain its quality as a military fortification.<ref>Cooper, p.63.</ref> Winter floods in 1315-6 damaged the soil at the base of the motte, requiring immediate repairs.<ref name=ButlerP17/> Around 1358-60, the heavy stone keep again suffered from subsidence and the southeastern lobe cracked from top to bottom.<ref>Cooper, p.76; Butler, p.17.</ref> Royal officials recommended that the keep be rebuilt entirely, but instead repairs were conducted costing £200.<ref name=ButlerP17/> |
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[[King Edward I of England|Edward I]] gave wide-reaching powers to the [[High Sheriff of Yorkshire|sheriff of Yorkshire]] for enforcing law and order in the city of York, and the sheriffs established their headquarters in Clifford's Tower.<ref>Cooper, p.50.</ref> During the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|wars against the Scots]] under both Edward and his son, York Castle also formed the centre of royal administration in England for almost half the years between 1298-1338.<ref name=MussonP164>Musson, p.164.</ref> Many [[Westminster]] institutions followed the king north to York, basing themselves in the castle compound.<ref name=MussonP164/> The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the court of common pleas at the beginning of the period, and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319-20.<ref name=MussonP164/> The exchequer took over Clifford's Tower.<ref name=MussonP164/> Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself.<ref name=MussonP164/> As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes, the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London, a pattern that lasted into the 1360s.<ref name=MussonP164/> The castle eventually acquired its own [[Mint (coin)|mint]] in 1344, when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce [[gold]] and [[silver]] coins to serve the needs of the north of England.<ref name=CooperP151>Cooper, p.151.</ref> European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility.<ref name=CooperP151/> |
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The castle played the same role in 1322 for [[Edward II of England|King Edward II]] in his campaign against his rebellious barons. Following the [[Battle of Boroughbridge]] in 1322, some of the defeated rebel leaders, including [[Sir Roger Clifford]], were executed at York. One source reports that they were executed and their bodies were hung in chains from the keep;<ref>T. Whellan & Co. 1857. ''History and Topography of the City of York; and the North Ridng of Yorkshire''.</ref>; this account does not mention the mode of execution. Another account refers to the mode of execution as "hanging in chains",<ref>K.R. Booth. 1990. ''York: The History and Heritage of a City''. (Barrie & Jenkins).</ref> presumably after the fashion that Robert Aske (below) chose. |
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Henry III extended the castle's role as a gaol for holding a wide range of prisoners.<ref name=TwyfordP45>Twyford, p.45.</ref> The sheriff was responsible for the gaol at this time, and his deputy usually took the role of a full-time jailer.<ref name=CooperP98>Cooper, p.98.</ref> Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time.<ref>Cooper, p.111.</ref> The conditions in which prisoners were held were "appalling", and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees.<ref>Cooper, p.97.</ref> Prison escapes were relatively common, many of them successful, such as the breakout by 28 prisoners in 1298.<ref name=CooperP98/> When the Military Order of the [[Knights Templar]] was dissolved in England in 1307, York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights.<ref>Cooper, pp. 102-3.</ref> The castle mills, as former Templar property, returned to royal control at the same time.<ref name=CooperP126>Cooper, p.126.</ref> [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] also used the castle as a gaol in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322, and after the [[battle of Boroughbridge]] many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle.<ref>Cooper, p.51.</ref> |
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In 1327, [[Isabella of France]], the less-than-faithful wife of the even less faithful [[bisexual]] [[King Edward II]], and the mother of [[Edward III of England|King Edward III]], resided at the castle. Six years later, [[Queen Philippa]], King Edward III's wife, had an exchequer in the bailey; she had married Edward III at [[York Minster]], on 24 January [[1328]]. |
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By the end of the 14th century, the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration, being used extensively as a gaol and with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey.<ref name=TwyfordP45/> The old castle-guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle.<ref>Cooper, p.115.</ref> Increasingly royalty preferred to stay at the [[York Franciscan Friary|Franciscan friary]] in York, whilst their staff resided at [[St Mary's Abbey, York|St Mary's Abbey]] and St Andrew's Priory.<ref name=ButlerP17>Butler, p.17.</ref> |
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At the time the castle served as an administrative seat and for some years as the [[mint (coin)|mint]] for the region, producing [[gold]] and [[silver]] [[coin]]s from [[1353]] to [[1546]]. By 1358, the heavy stone keep had subsided and the southeastern lobe cracked from top to bottom. In 1361, Edward III too kept his Treasury in the castle while campaigning. |
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===15th and 16th centuries=== |
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After the [[Battle of Towton]] (1461), which took place about 11 miles from York, the defeated [[Lancastrians]] fled to the city. [[Edward IV of England|King Edward IV]] followed close behind and stayed briefly at the castle. |
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[[Image:RidsdalePanorma.jpg|thumb|350px|A panorama of 15th century York by [[E Ridsdale Tate|E. Ridsdale Tate]]; York Castle is on the right hand side of river, opposite the abandoned motte of [[Baile Hill, York|Baile Hill]].]] |
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In the 15th century, York Castle, along with [[Nottingham Castle]], was considered a key security asset in the north of England, but investment even in these castles diminished.<ref>Pounds, p.258.</ref> Repairs to the castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards and the castle fell into increasing disrepair.<ref>Cooper, p.143.</ref> [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] recognised the issue and in 1483 commenced some works on the castle, removing some of the most decrepit structures; Richard died at the [[battle of Bosworth]] before replacement work could commence.<ref>Cooper, p.147.</ref> By the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], the [[antiquary]] [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] reported the castle in considerable disrepair; nonetheless the water defences remained intact, unlike many other castles of the period.<ref>Timbs, p.170; Clark, p.255.</ref> As a result of the deterioration, Henry had to be advised that the king's councillors no longer had any official residence to stay and work when they were in York.<ref>Cooper, p.148.</ref> The castle mint was shut down after the death of [[King Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] in 1546, whilst the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464.<ref>Cooper, p.126, 155.</ref> The hospital was then closed during the Reformation, and the mills passed into private ownership once again.<ref name=CooperP126/> |
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The castle continued to be used as a gaol, increasingly for local felons, and a location for political executions.<ref>Twyford, p.46.</ref> By the 16th century it was traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford's Tower, rather than killing them at [[York city walls|Micklegate Bar]], the usual location for capital punishment in York.<ref name=CooperP158>Cooper, p.158.</ref> In 1536, for example, the political leader [[Robert Aske (political leader)|Robert Aske]] was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII, following the failure of Aske's [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] protest against the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|dissolution of the monasteries]].<ref name=CooperP158/> For most of the period the sheriff of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle, with some notable exceptions such the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by [[King Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] in 1478.<ref>Cooper, pp. 146-7.</ref><ref group="nb">Robert Ryther also served as the sheriff of Yorkshire twice himself, but was unusual in being granted control of the castle from 1478 onwards as well on a personal basis.</ref> At the end of the 16th century, however, the [[Earl of Cumberland|Earls of Cumberland]], the Cliffords, became the hereditary constables of the castle and the Clifford's Tower took its later name from their family at around this time.<ref>Butler, p.4.</ref> |
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In 1484 the castle was in such a poor state of repair that [[Richard III of England|King Richard III]] ordered parts demolished and replaced. However, he died at [[Bosworth]] and his instructions were not implemented. |
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The deterioration continued into the reign of [[Queen Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], who was advised that the castle no longer had any military utility.<ref name=CooperP149>Cooper, p.149.</ref> Robert Redhead, the tower keeper, became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit.<ref name=CooperP158/> Despite numerous attempts to halt this by local city and crown officials, Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop.<ref>Cooper, p.161.</ref> Proposals were made to pull down Clifford's Tower altogether in 1596, but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling in favour of the tower.<ref name=CooperP149/> |
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In 1536, political leader [[Robert Aske (political leader)|Robert Aske]] was hanged above Clifford's Tower on the orders of [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]], following the failure of Aske's [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] protest against the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]]. |
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===17th century=== |
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Also in the 16th century Robert Redhead, the tower keeper, sold some of the stonework. He managed to sell some ten layers before anyone noticed that the battlements and turrets were disappearing. He was [[hanged]]. |
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[[Image:York Castle in 1644.jpg|thumb|350px|York Castle in 1644 during the [[English Civil War]], after [[Francis Place (artist)|Francis Place]].]] |
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Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive and in 1614 [[King James I of England|King James]] sold the lease on Clifford's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield, a pair of property speculators.<ref>Twyford, p.44; Butler, p.20.</ref> In turn, Babington and Duffield sold Clifford's Tower on to a local York merchant family.<ref>Cooper, p.169.</ref> In 1642, however, the [[English Civil War]] broke out between the rival factions of the [[Cavalier|Royalists]] and [[Roundheads|Parliament]]. Forces loyal to [[King Charles I of England|Charles I]], under the command of [[Henry Clifford, 5th Earl of Cumberland|Henry Clifford]], garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643. York effectively became the "northern capital" for the Royalist cause.<ref>Wedgwood, p.77.</ref> Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support [[cannon]], placing his his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance.<ref name=TimbsGunnP170>Timbs and Gunn, p.170.</ref> Clifford's Tower's gatehouse was remodelled substantially from its origianl medieval appearance.<ref>Butler, p.4.</ref> Baile Hill, on the other side of the river, became a gun emplacement.<ref name=TimbsGunnP170/> The castle mint was reopened to supply the king's forces with coins.<ref>Cooper, p.155.</ref> |
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=== The seventeenth century === |
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When the [[English Civil War]] broke out in [[1642]], the [[Cavalier|Royalists]] under Henry Clifford, the last [[Earl of Cumberland]], took possession of the castle and city of York and garrisoned them. Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support [[cannon]]. Baile Hill, which was 20 feet high and had been incorporated into the city walls, also became a gun emplacement. |
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The war turned against the Royalist factions and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the [[Siege of York|siege of York]]. A Scottish army under [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven|Alexander Leslie]] came from the south, while a Parliamentary force under [[Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron|Ferdinando Fairfax]], came from the east.<ref>Wedgwood, p.289.</ref> Six weeks later, [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Edward Montagu]], brought a third contingent to York, bringing the number of forces beseiging York to over 30,000 men. [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|William Cavendish]], commanded the city during the siege, while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle.<ref name=TimbsGunnP170/> Despite bombardment, attempts to undermine the walls, and attacks on the gates, the city held out thorough May and June.<ref>Wedgwood, p.311.</ref> [[Prince Rupert]], sent to relieve York, approached with with reinforcements and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw, lifting the siege on 1 July.<ref>Wedgwood, pp. 312-3.</ref> The next day Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the [[Battle of Marston Moor]], six miles west of York, making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable.<ref>Wedgwood, p.322.</ref> On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces, who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours.<ref>Wedgwood, p.322; Twyford, p.41.</ref> |
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Parliament then appointing Thomas Dickenson, the local mayor, as the governor of Clifford's Tower.<ref name=TimbsGunnP170/> Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration.<ref>Twyford, p.41.</ref> Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford's Tower, which Parliament used as a garrison, from the buildings of the bailey, which continued to be used as a prison.<ref name=CooperP173>Cooper, p.173.</ref> [[Oliver Cromwell]] visited Clifford's Tower in 1650, and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it.<ref name=CooperP173/> The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York.<ref>Cooper, p.172.</ref> |
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On 5 June, messengers, disguised as women, brought news to Cavendish that [[Prince Rupert]] was on his way to relieve the city. Through adroit maneuvering, Rupert was able to force the besiegers to withdraw, lifting the siege on 1 July. However, the next day Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at [[Marston Moor]], six miles west of York, in what was the largest and bloodiest battle of the war. On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces, who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours. The [[Roundheads]] then [[slighting|slighted]] the castle. |
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[[Image:Clifford's Tower-2007 1.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A massive explosion in 1684 destroyed the roof, floor and central pillar of Clifford's Tower, leaving only the walls intact.]] |
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After the restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], the Castle received some rebuilding, including the installation of heraldic panels over the entry that contain the King's arms and those of the Clifford family. Henry Clifford, the last Earl of Cumberland, was the last to garrison the castle. This is a more probable source of the name, '''Clifford's Tower''' than the execution of Sir Robert Clifford. |
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After the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], the pre-war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford's Tower, eventually being granted ownership.<ref>Cooper, pp. 180-1.</ref> A garrison continued to be stationed there, however, which prevented them from actually occupying or using the property.<ref name=ClarkeP261>Clarke, p.261.</ref> Repairs were made to the tower and it became a [[Magazine (artillery)|magazine]] for storing [[gunpowder]] and [[Round shot|shot]].<ref name=ClarkeP261/> Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat, which had become badly silted.<ref>Twyford, p.42.</ref> Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period, including [[George Fox]], the founder of the [[Society of Friends]].<ref>Cooper, p.181.</ref> |
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The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years, with the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall both being improved, but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question.<ref name=ButlerP20>Butler, p.20.</ref> Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682; he argued that it would cost at least £30,000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification, producing a proposal for the six [[bastion]]s that such a [[star fort]] would require.<ref name=ButlerP20/> This work was never carried out.<ref name=ButlerP20/> Meanwhile, the garrison and the castle had became extremely unpopular with the people of York, who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority.<ref>Cooper, p.183.</ref> |
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On [[St. George's Day]] (23 April) 1684, at around 10pm, an explosion in the [[magazine (artillery)]] reduced the tower to its exterior walls. There is some reason to believe the explosion was not accidental. At the time, it was common in the city to toast the wished-for demolition of the "Minced Pie", as the castle was known, and not only did the explosion not kill anyone, but the garrison had previously removed their belongings. The ruined tower subsequently became an ornamental feature in the grounds of a large house that had been built to the north-east. |
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On [[St. George's Day]] in 1684 at around 10pm, an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower entirely.<ref>Clarke, p.261.</ref> The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork, which in turn later ignited the magazine.<ref>Butler, p.21.</ref> Most historians, however, believe the explosion was not accidental.<ref>Clarke, p.261.</ref> At the time, it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the "Minced Pie", as the castle was known to locals; suspiciously, parts of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion, and none of the garrison was injured by the event.<ref>Timbs and Gunn, p.170; Twyford, pp. 34-4.</ref> The heat of the fire discoloured the limestone of the tower to its current, slightly pink, colour.<ref>Butler, p.4.</ref> The now-ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership, eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Ward.<ref>Cooper, p.177; Butler, p.21.</ref> |
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On 22 November 1688, [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds]], commonly known as Danby, and his followers seized York Castle, declared themselves for the [[Prince of Orange]]. They took Sir [[John Reresby]], whom Charles II had in 1683 appointed governor of York, prisoner, but subsequently paroled him. |
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=== |
===18th century=== |
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[[Image:York Castle in 1820.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An 1820 sketch of the York Castle site; left to right, the site of the former bailey, including the Debtor's Prison (comprising the former Female Prison and the County Gaol) and the Assize Court; Clifford's Tower, in front of the [[river Foss]]; the house and gardens of Waud house.]] |
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By 1701, the conditions of the county jail had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey.<ref name=TwyfordP45/> A local tax helped to fund the development, and the king agreed for the ruins of [[St Mary's Abbey, York|St Mary's Abbey]] to be cannibalised for building stone.<ref name=TwyfordP45/> Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford's Tower. A new County Gaol, built between 1701-5 by William Wakefield, was placed on the south side, closely resembling the fashionable work of [[John Vanbrugh]].<ref>Butler, p.22.</ref> The local architect [[John Carr (architect)|John Carr]] then built the [[Assize Court]]s between 1773-7 on the west side, and the Female Prison, between 1780-3, on the east side, replacing the old Grand jury House and Common Hall respectively.<ref>Butler, p.8, 20, 22.</ref> The Female Prison and County Gaol were later combined to become the Debtors' prison.<ref name=TwyfordP45/> All three buildings were designed in a distinctive [[Neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] style; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being "a superb building of the Ionic order".<ref>Butler, p.8; Twyford, p.49.</ref> The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the "Eye of the [[Riding (country subdivision)|Ridings]]" because it was used for the election of [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] for York.<ref name=ButlerP23>Butler, p.23.</ref> |
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Visits by the prison reformer [[John Howard (prison reformer)|John Howard]] as part of his research for his book ''The State of the Prisons'' found these prisons flawed, but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time.<ref>Twyford, pp. 46-7.</ref> The Debtor's prison as a whole was an "honour to the county" of York, with "airy and healthy" rooms, but the [[felon]]'s wing of the prison suffered some criticism.<ref name=TwyfordP47>Howard, quoted Twyford p.47.</ref> The felon's wing was "too small" and had "no water" for the inmates; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor.<ref name=TwyfordP47/> Indeed, conditions were so bad in the felon wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739.<ref name=ButlerP23/> |
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In the 18th century, three new buildings forming a U shape were erected to the south of Clifford's Tower. These were the County Gaol (1701-5, by [[William Wakefield (architect)|William Wakefield]]) on the south side, the [[Assize Court]]s (1773-7, by [[John Carr (architect)|John Carr]]) on the west side, and the Female Prison (1780-3, after Carr) on the east side. The Assize Courts building now houses York Crown Court, while the Female Prison and the County Gaol, which later became the Debtors' Prison, now house the [[York Castle Museum|Castle Museum]]. The circular grassed area between these buildings is known as Castle Green, or the Eye of York. |
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Just outside the main walls, the castle mills had become increasingly less effective from the 16th century onwards, due to a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water wheels.<ref>Cooper, p.128.</ref> As a result, in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new [[steam engine]] to drive the machinery; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the local prisoners affected by the smoke and noise.<ref>Cooper, p.129.</ref> |
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=== The nineteenth century and later === |
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===19th and 20th centuries=== |
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In 1825, Clifford's Tower and the large house to its north-east were purchased and new prison buildings were constructed, including walls, a gatehouse and an extra prison block. The whole castle area served as a prison from 1835 to 1929. In 1935, all these new buildings were swept away. |
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[[Image:York Castle in 1846.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Battlement|crenelated]] [[Jacobethan|Tudor Gothic]] [[gatehouse]] of the new 1825 prison at York Castle, alongside Clifford's Tower, depicted in 1846.]] |
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Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century.<ref name=CooperP191>Cooper, p.191.</ref> The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly.<ref name=CooperP191/> Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards, with the former castle courtyard, the Eye of the Ridings, being used for this purpose instead, although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners.<ref name=BulterP23>Butler, p.23.</ref> By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the "[[Hanging#Methods of judicial hanging#Short drop|short drop]]" method of hanging, allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen [[Luddism|Luddite]] agitators at the castle in 1814.<ref name=BulterP23/> Overcrowding in the gaol was now also a problem, with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time; on occasions around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the gaol yard for lack of space elsewhere.<ref>Cooper, p.148.</ref> |
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The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 [[Assizes (England and Wales)|assizes]] in York, when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun.<ref name=CooperP191/> The decision was taken to purchase Clifford's Tower and Waud house, with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new, more modern prison.<ref>Cooper, pp. 191-2.</ref> [[Sydney Smith]], a local writer and clergyman, successfully led a campaign to save Clifford's Tower, appealing to the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city.<ref>Cooper, p.192.</ref> One alternative proposal was put forward by architect Robert Wallace, which would have seen the conversion of Clifford's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a [[radius|radial]] prison design, but this too was turned down.<ref name=BulterP23/> |
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[[English Heritage]] now owns Clifford's Tower. Recently, commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it. Citizens, visitors, academics, [[environmentalist]]s, local businesspeople and [[Jewish]] groups have opposed the development with some success, winning a lengthy and bitter Public Inquiry in 2003. |
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In 1825, Clifford's Tower and Waud house were purchased by the county of [[Yorkshire]] at the cost of £8,800 (£665,000 at 2009 prices).<ref>Twyford, p.44; Cooper, p.195.</ref><ref name=MeasuringWorthAE>Financial comparison based on the RPI index, using the [http://www.measuringworth.com/index.php Measuring Worth] website. Accessed 25 October 2010.</ref> The new prison buildings, designed by architects Robinson and Andrews, were constructed in a [[Jacobethan|Tudor Gothic]] style, including a 35 feet (11 metre) high gatehouse and a radial prison block, protected by a long, high stone wall.<ref>Cooper, p.239; Twyford, p.45; Butler, p.24.</ref> The prison was considered to be the strongest such building in England, being made entirely of stone in order to be both secure and fireproof.<ref>Sears, p.180.</ref> Dark grey [[gritstone]] was used in the construction to produce a more forbidding appearance, although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated.<ref>Butler, p.24; Sears, p.180.</ref> |
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==Description of the castle== |
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Clifford's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison, although the [[Talus (fortification)|talus]], or sloping edge of the motte was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall in order to allow more space for the new prison building.<ref>Cooper, p.195.</ref> The backyard of the Female Prison was used for hangings from 1868 onwards, being politely concealed from public view by the new wall.<ref name=BulterP23/> The 1877 [[Prison Act 1877|Prisons Act]] reformed the English prison system and the York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year.<ref name=CooperP196>Cooper, p.196.</ref> It was used as the county prison until 1900, when the remaining prisoners were transferred to [[Wakefield (HM Prison)|Wakefield Prison]], and from then onwards the facility was used as a [[military prison]] instead.<ref>Butler, p.24.</ref> |
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[[Image:York Prison Gatehouse.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Architects Robinson and Andrews' original design for the front (l) and interior (r) elevations of the new 1825 York Castle prison gatehouse.]] |
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The castle of 1068 was originally designed as a motte and bailey fortification. The major campaign of work from 1245 to the 1270s resulted in the crescent shaped bailey area being enclosed by a high stone wall with regularly spaced cylindrical towers. There was a gate on the town side, adjacent to the motte. Another gate on the opposite side of the bailey, the foundations of which one can still see, gave access to the open country south of the castle. Historians believe the bailey included two halls, a chapel, a kitchen and a prison. |
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By the early 19th century, dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import [[flour]] into York by river, reducing the economic significance of the castle mills.<ref name=ButlerP8>Butler, p.8.</ref> In 1856 the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river.<ref>Cooper, p.130.</ref> The King's Pool that formed part of the castle's water defences was drained and built on.<ref name=ButlerP8/> With the construction of several new bridges near the castle, the site became "surrounded by roads instead of moats".<ref name=ButlerP8/> |
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In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as an historical location.<ref name=CooperP196/> In 1902 Clifford's Tower was given to [[North Yorkshire|Yorkshire County Council]], together with a grant of £3,000 (£242,000) arranged by [[Beilby Lawley, 3rd Baron Wenlock|Lord Wenlock]] for conversation and repairs.<ref>Cooper, p.196, 200.</ref><ref name=MeasuringWorthAE/> The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte, causing a reoccurence of the 14th century subsidence.<ref name=CooperP200>Cooper, p.200.</ref> Sir [[Basil Mott]], a leading Victorian engineer, installed concrete underpinnings to compensate and stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse.<ref name=CooperP200/> By the early 20th century, Clifford's Tower was regularly open to visitors and in 1915 it was passed onto the [[Office of Works]] as a national monument.<ref>Cooper, p.208, Butler, p.24.</ref> |
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Clifford's Tower is a keep of unusual design. The structure is a quatrefoil plan, much like a four-leafed clover, and consisted of two stories. A central stone pillar, of which traces remain, supported the first floor. A square turret on the south side between two of the lobes protected the entrance. There are defensive turrets between the other lobes. The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by reducing dead ground visible from the summit of the keep. Historians suspect that the builders of Clifford's Tower based it on a French model, as one can find a nearly identical example to York at [[Château d'Étampes|Étampes]], [[France]]. Very few examples of this multilobed type of castle tower exist; one local example is the [[keep]] of [[Pontefract Castle]] (now badly damaged). |
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==Today== |
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For the construction, [[Henry III of England|King Henry III]] employed master mason Henry de Rayns, who organized the work, and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton, both of whom had had major roles in the building of [[Windsor Castle]]. (Interestingly, Master Henry had worked at [[Paris]], which is near Étampes Castle.) |
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York Prison finally closed in 1929 and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935.<ref>Butler, p.24.</ref> The Assize Courts building now houses the York [[Crown Court]], while the former Debtors' Prison is now the [[York Castle Museum|Castle Museum]]. The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the "Eyes of the Ridings" is now known as Castle Green, or the "Eye of York".<ref name=BulterP23/> Clifford's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification, although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern.<ref name=HullP99/> Fragments of the bailey wall, parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive.<ref>Butler, p.9.</ref> |
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The castle is classed as a Grade I [[listed building]] and as a [[Scheduled Monument]].<ref>[http://www.pastscape.org/hob.aspx?hob_id=58151&sort=4&search=all&criteria=york%20castle&rational=q&recordsperpage=10 National Monuments Record]. Accessed 15 October 2010.</ref> The site is open to the public, managed by [[English Heritage]]. Up until the 1970s, the [[pogrom]] of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it.<ref name=DobsonP145>Dobson, p.145.</ref> In 1978, however, the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford's Tower, whilst in 1990 the eight hundredth anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower.<ref name=DobsonP145/> Recently, commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it. Citizens, visitors, academics, environmentalists, local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success, winning a lengthy and bitter [[public inquiry]] in 2003.<ref>[http://www.yorkcastle.com/pages/news2003.html York Castle Campaign website]. Accessed 6 November 2010.</ref> |
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{{wide image|Cliffords tower york england small.jpg|750px|The view today from Clifford's Tower facing [[York Minster]].}} |
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==Notes== |
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{{reflist|group="nb"}} |
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==References== |
==References== |
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<references /> |
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em}} |
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==Bibliography== |
==Bibliography== |
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*Brown, Reginald Allen. (2004) ''Allen Brown's English castles.'' Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843830696. |
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*{{cite book |
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*Butler, Lawrence. (1997) ''Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York.' London: English Heritage. ISBN 1850746737. |
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| last = England Heritage |
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*Clark, G. T. (1874) "The Defences of York," in ''The Archaeological Journal'', XXXI (1874). |
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| first = |
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*Cooper, Thomas Parsons. (1911) ''The History of the Castle of York, from its foundation to the current day with an account of the building of Clifford's Tower.'' London: Elliot Stock. |
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| authorlink = |
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*Dobson, Barry. "The Medieval York Jewry Reconsidered," in Skinner (ed) 2003. |
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| coauthors = |
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*Hillaby, Joe. (2003) "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century," in Skinner (ed) 2003. |
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| title = Clifford's Tower |
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*Hull, Lise E. (2006) ''Britain's Medieval Castles.'' Westport: Praeger. ISBN 9780275984144. |
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| publisher = England Heritage |
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*Musson, Anthony. (2008) "Court Venues and the Politics of Justice," in Saul (ed) 2008. |
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| year = 1993 |
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*Pounds, Norman John Greville. (1990) ''The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a social and political history.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521458283. |
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| location = London |
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*Saul, Nigel. (ed) (2008) ''Fourteenth Century England, Volume 5.'' Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843833871. |
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| pages = 24 pp |
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*Sears, Robert. (1847) ''A New and Popular Pictorial Description of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the British Islands.'' New York: Robert Sears. |
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| url = |
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*Skinner, Patricia. (ed) (2003) ''The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives.'' Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9780851159317. |
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| doi = |
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*Stenton, Doris Mary. (1976) ''English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066–1307).'' Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. ISBN 0140202528. |
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| isbn = 1850741409 }} |
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*Timbs, John and Alexander Gunn. (1872/2008) ''Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales Their Legendary Lore and Popular History, Volume 3.'' Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 9781443784009. |
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*{{cite book | last = Pevsner | first = Nikolaus | authorlink = Nikolaus Pevsner | coauthors = and Neave, David | title = Yorkshire: York and the East Riding | origyear = 1972 | edition = 2nd edition | year = 1995 | publisher = Penguin Books | location = London | isbn = 0-14-071061-2 }} |
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*Toy, Sidney. (1985) ''Castles: Their Construction and History.'' New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486248981. |
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*Twyford, Anthony William. (1880/2010) ''Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison.'' Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 9781445571119. |
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*Wedgwood, C. V. (1970) ''The King's War: 1641-1647.'' London: Fontana. |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{commonscat|York Castle}} |
{{commonscat|York Castle}} |
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* [http://www.castlegate.net/CASTLES/YORK/ Clifford's Tower], Lise Hull, 1996 |
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* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/daysout/properties/cliffords-tower-york/ English Heritage site for Clifford's Tower] |
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* [http://homepage.mac.com/philipdavis/English%20sites/3722.html Gatehouse Gazette for York Castle] |
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* [http://www.yorkcastlemuseum.org.uk/ York Castle Museum] |
* [http://www.yorkcastlemuseum.org.uk/ York Castle Museum] |
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* [http://www.historyofyork.org.uk/themes/york-castle York Castle Theme on the History of York site] |
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{{Prisons in Yorkshire and the Humber}} |
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* [http://www.yorkcastle.com/ Castle Area Campaign in the City of York] |
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* [http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server.php?show=conProperty.362 Official Clifford's Tower Site] |
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* [http://viewfrommyoffice.com/?q=taxonomy/term/4 Clifford's Tower viewed from 6th floor of York's Ryedale building] |
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Revision as of 09:28, 7 November 2010
| York Castle | |
|---|---|
| Yorkshire, England | |
 Clifford's Tower, the keep of York Castle | |
| Lua error in Module:Location_map at line 411: Malformed coordinates value. | |
| Coordinates | grid reference SE603514 |
| Type | Shell keep and bailey |
| Site information | |
| Owner | English Heritage |
| Condition | Ruined, parts used as a museum and York's Crown Court |
| Site history | |
| Materials | Magnesian limestone |
| Battles/wars | Siege of York in 1644 |
| Events | Jewish massacre of 1190 |
York Castle, today often referred to as Clifford's Tower, is a now ruinous Norman medieval castle in the city of York, England. Built originally on the orders of William I in order to dominate the former Viking city of York, the castle suffered a tumultuous early history before developing into a major fortification with extensive water defences, serving as the centre of royal administration in England for part of the 14th century. After a major explosion in 1684 rendered the remaining military defences uninhabitable, York Castle continued to be used as a gaol and prison until 1929.
The first motte and bailey castle on the site was built in 1068 following the Norman conquest of York. Following the destruction of the castle by rebels and a Viking army in 1069, York Castle was rebuilt and reinforced with extensive water defences, including a moat and an artificial lake. York Castle formed an important royal fortification in the north of England and was at the heart of the 1190 pogrom in which 150 local Jews were killed in the castle keep. Henry III rebuilt the castle in stone in the middle of the 13th century, creating a keep, later known as Clifford's Tower, with a unique quatrefoil design, supported by an outer bailey wall and a substantial gatehouse. During the Scottish wars between 1298-1338, York Castle was frequently used as the centre of royal administration across England, as well as an important military base for operations.
York Castle fell into disrepair by the 15th and 16th centuries, becoming used increasingly as a gaol for both local felons and political prisoners. By the time of Elizabeth I the castle was estimated to have lost all of its military value but was maintained as a centre of royal authority in York. The outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 saw York Castle being repaired and refortified, playing a part in the Royalist defence of York in 1644 against Parliamentary forces. York Castle continued to be garrisoned until 1684, when an explosion destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower. The castle bailey was redeveloped in a neoclassical style in the 18th century as a centre for county administration in Yorkshire, being used as a gaol and debtors' prison. Victorian prison reform led to the creation of a new prison built in a Tudor Gothic style on the castle site in 1825; used first as a county and then as a military prison, this facility was demolished in 1935. By the 20th century the ruin of Clifford's Tower had become a well-known tourist destination and national monument; today the site is owned by English Heritage and open to the public.
History
11th century
At the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066, York was a major northern city and had been a Viking capital in the 10th century.[1] In 1068, William I undertook his first northern expedition.[2] As part of this campaign he built a number of castles across the north-east of England, including at York.[2] William's first castle was a basic wood motte and bailey castle built at York between the rivers Ouse and Foss on the site of the present-day York Castle.[2] Built in haste, contemporary accounts imply it was constructed in only eight days, although this assertion has been challenged.[3] The motte was originally around 200 feet (71 metres) wide at the base.[4] Being built in an urban environment, hundreds of houses had to be destroyed to make way for the development.[5] William Malet, the sheriff of Yorkshire, was placed in charge of the castle and successfully defended the castle against an immediate uprising by the local population.[6]
In response to the worsening security situation, William conducted his second northern campaign in 1069. William built another castle in York, on what is now Baile Hill on the west bank of the Ouse opposite the first, in an effort to improve his control over the city.[7] This second castle was also a motte and bailey design, with the Baile Hill motte probably reached by a horizontal bridge and steps cut up the side of the motte.[8] Later that year, a Danish Viking fleet sailed up the Humber and attacked both castles with the assistance of Cospatrick of Northumbria and a number of local rebels.[9] The Normans, attempting to drive the rebels back out of the city, set fire to some of the houses.[9] The fire grew out of control and also set fire to York Minster and, some argue, the castles as well.[10][nb 1] The castles were captured, partially dismantled and Mallet was taken hostage by the Danes.[11]
William conducted a widespread sequence of punitive operations across the north of England in the aftermath of the attacks between 1069-70.[9] This "Harrying of the North" restored sufficient order to allow the rebuilding of the two castles, again in wood.[9] The bailey at York Castle was enlarged slightly in the process; buildings believed to have been inside the bailey at this time include "halls, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges [and] workshops".[12] By the time the Domesday Book was written in 1086, York Castle was also surrounded by a water filled moat and a large artificial lake called the King's Pool, fed from the river Foss by a dam built especially for the purpose.[13] More property, including two watermills, had to be destroyed to make way for the water defences.[14] Over time the Baile Hill site was abandoned in favour of the first castle site, leaving only the motte.[15]
12th century
Henry II visited York Castle four time during his reign.[16] The royal chambers at the time were inside the keep for safety, and Henry paid £15 for repairs to the keep.[16][nb 2] During his 1175 visit, Henry used the castle as the base for receiving the homage of William the Lion of Scotland.[16] Castle mills were built close by to support the garrison and the military order of the Knights Templar were granted ownership of the mills in the mid-12th century.[17] The mills proved to be vulnerable to the flooding of the two rivers and had to be repeatedly repaired.[18]
In 1190, York Castle played a central role in one of the key pogroms in England during the medieval period.[19] The Normans had introduced the first Jewish communities into England, where they occupied a special economic role as moneylenders, an essential but otherwise banned activity.[20] English Jews were subject to considerable religious prejudice and primarily worked from towns and cities in which there was a local royal castle that could provide them with protection in the event of attacks from the majority Christian population.[21] Royal protection was usually granted as the Norman and Angevin kings had determined that Jewish property and debts owed to Jews ultimately belonged to the crown, reverting to the king on a Jew's death.[22]
Richard I was coronated in 1189 and announced his intention to join the Crusades, raising new taxes at the same time. Rumours began to spread that the king had ordered that the English Jews be attacked. In York tensions broke out into violence the following year. Richard de Malbis, who owed money to the powerful Jewish merchant Aaron of Lincoln, exploited an accidental house fire to incite a local mob to attack the home and family of a recently deceased Jewish employee of Aaron in York.[19] Josce of York, the leader of the Jewish community, led the local Jewish families into the royal castle, where they took refuge in the wooden keep.[19] The mob surrounded the castle and when the constable left the castle to discuss the situation, the Jews, fearing the entry of the mob or being handed over to the sheriff, refused to allow him back in.[19] The constable appealed to the sheriff, who called out his own men and laid siege to the keep.[19] The siege continued until 16 March when the Jews' position became untenable.[19] Their religious leader, Rabbi Yomtob, proposed an act of collective suicide to avoid being killed by the mob and the castle was set on fire to prevent their bodies being mutilated after their deaths.[19] Several Jews perished in the flames but the majority took their own lives rather than give themselves up to the mob.[23] A few Jews did surrender, promising to convert to Christianity, but they were killed by the angry crowd.[19] Around 150 Jews died in total in the massacre.[24] The keep was rebuilt again in wood on the motte, which was raised in height by 13 feet (4 metres) at a cost of £207.[25]
13th and 14th centuries
King John used York Castle extensively during his reign, using the keep as his personal quarters for his own security.[26] The castle was kept in good repair during the period.[27] The first records of the castle being used as a gaol occur in this period, with references to prisoners taken during John's Irish campaigns being held at York Castle.[28] By the 13th century there was a well established system of castle-guards in place, under which various lands around York were granted in return for the provision of knights and crossbowmen to assist in protecting the castle.[29]
Henry III also made extensive use of the castle, but during his visit at Christmas 1228 a gale destroyed the wooden keep on the motte.[30] The keep was apparently not repaired and a building for the king's use was built in the bailey instead.[31] In 1244, when the Scots threatened to invade England, King Henry III visited the castle and ordered it rebuilt in white limestone, at a cost of about ₤2,600.[32] The work was carried out between 1245-70, and included the construction of a towered curtain wall; three gate houses, one of considerable size with two large towers, a smaller water-gate and a small gateway into the city; a chapel ,and a new stone keep, first known as the King's, later Clifford's Tower.[33][nb 3]
Clifford's Tower was of an unusual design. The two storey tower has a quatrefoil plan with four circular lobes. Each lobe measures 22 feet (6.5 metres) across, with walls 9 feet 6 inches (3 metres) thick; at its widest, the tower is 79 feet (24 metres) across.[34] A square gatehouse, 21 feet (6.5 metres) wide, protected the entrance on the south side between two of the lobes.[34] There are defensive turrets between the other lobes.[34] Large corbels and a central pier supported the huge weight of stone and the first floor.[35] Loopholes of a design unique to York Castle provided firing points.[36] A chapel was built over the entrance, measuring 15 feet by 14 feet (4.5 metres by 4.2 metres), doubling as a portcullis chamber as at Harlech and Chepstow castles.[37] The tower is believed to be an experiment in improving flanking fire by reducing dead ground visible from the summit of the keep. Although unique to England, the design of the tower closely resembles that at Étampes in France, and may have influenced the design of the future keep of Pontefract Castle.[38] Henry employed master mason Henry de Rayns and chief carpenter Simon of Northampton for the project, and the cost of the tower accounted for the majority of the overall expenditure on the castle during this period of work.[39]
The new castle needed constant investment in order to maintain its quality as a military fortification.[40] Winter floods in 1315-6 damaged the soil at the base of the motte, requiring immediate repairs.[41] Around 1358-60, the heavy stone keep again suffered from subsidence and the southeastern lobe cracked from top to bottom.[42] Royal officials recommended that the keep be rebuilt entirely, but instead repairs were conducted costing £200.[41]
Edward I gave wide-reaching powers to the sheriff of Yorkshire for enforcing law and order in the city of York, and the sheriffs established their headquarters in Clifford's Tower.[43] During the wars against the Scots under both Edward and his son, York Castle also formed the centre of royal administration in England for almost half the years between 1298-1338.[44] Many Westminster institutions followed the king north to York, basing themselves in the castle compound.[44] The existing castle buildings were insufficient to house all the administrative institutions; a temporary building inside the castle was built for the court of common pleas at the beginning of the period, and rebuilt on a larger scale during 1319-20.[44] The exchequer took over Clifford's Tower.[44] Other buildings around the city had to be commandeered to absorb the overflow from the castle itself.[44] As a result of the extended use of the castle for these purposes, the law courts at York Castle began to compete with those in London, a pattern that lasted into the 1360s.[44] The castle eventually acquired its own mint in 1344, when Edward III decided to create a permanent mint in York Castle to produce gold and silver coins to serve the needs of the north of England.[45] European coiners were brought to York to establish the facility.[45]
Henry III extended the castle's role as a gaol for holding a wide range of prisoners.[46] The sheriff was responsible for the gaol at this time, and his deputy usually took the role of a full-time jailer.[47] Up to three hundred and ten prisoners were held in the castle at any one time.[48] The conditions in which prisoners were held were "appalling", and led to the widespread loss of life amongst detainees.[49] Prison escapes were relatively common, many of them successful, such as the breakout by 28 prisoners in 1298.[47] When the Military Order of the Knights Templar was dissolved in England in 1307, York Castle was used to hold many of the arrested knights.[50] The castle mills, as former Templar property, returned to royal control at the same time.[51] Edward II also used the castle as a gaol in his campaign against his rebellious barons in 1322, and after the battle of Boroughbridge many of the defeated rebel leaders were executed at York Castle.[52]
By the end of the 14th century, the castle bailey was primarily occupied by the local county administration, being used extensively as a gaol and with prisoners being kept in the various towers around the bailey.[46] The old castle-guard system for securing the castle had changed into a system whereby the crown used rents from local royal lands to hire local guards for the castle.[53] Increasingly royalty preferred to stay at the Franciscan friary in York, whilst their staff resided at St Mary's Abbey and St Andrew's Priory.[41]
15th and 16th centuries
In the 15th century, York Castle, along with Nottingham Castle, was considered a key security asset in the north of England, but investment even in these castles diminished.[54] Repairs to the castle grew infrequent from 1400 onwards and the castle fell into increasing disrepair.[55] Richard III recognised the issue and in 1483 commenced some works on the castle, removing some of the most decrepit structures; Richard died at the battle of Bosworth before replacement work could commence.[56] By the reign of Henry VIII, the antiquary John Leland reported the castle in considerable disrepair; nonetheless the water defences remained intact, unlike many other castles of the period.[57] As a result of the deterioration, Henry had to be advised that the king's councillors no longer had any official residence to stay and work when they were in York.[58] The castle mint was shut down after the death of Edward VI in 1546, whilst the castle mills were given to a local charitable hospital in 1464.[59] The hospital was then closed during the Reformation, and the mills passed into private ownership once again.[51]
The castle continued to be used as a gaol, increasingly for local felons, and a location for political executions.[60] By the 16th century it was traditional to execute traitors by hanging them from the top of Clifford's Tower, rather than killing them at Micklegate Bar, the usual location for capital punishment in York.[61] In 1536, for example, the political leader Robert Aske was executed at York Castle on the orders of Henry VIII, following the failure of Aske's Pilgrimage of Grace protest against the dissolution of the monasteries.[61] For most of the period the sheriff of Yorkshire remained in control of the castle, with some notable exceptions such the appointment of the royal favourite Sir Robert Ryther by Edward IV in 1478.[62][nb 4] At the end of the 16th century, however, the Earls of Cumberland, the Cliffords, became the hereditary constables of the castle and the Clifford's Tower took its later name from their family at around this time.[63]
The deterioration continued into the reign of Elizabeth I, who was advised that the castle no longer had any military utility.[64] Robert Redhead, the tower keeper, became infamous at the time for taking parts of the castle to pieces and selling off the stonework for his own profit.[61] Despite numerous attempts to halt this by local city and crown officials, Redhead continued to cause considerable damage before being forced to stop.[65] Proposals were made to pull down Clifford's Tower altogether in 1596, but were turned down because of the strength of local feeling in favour of the tower.[64]
17th century
Maintaining the castle was becoming increasingly expensive and in 1614 King James sold the lease on Clifford's Tower and the surrounding land to John Babington and Edmund Duffield, a pair of property speculators.[66] In turn, Babington and Duffield sold Clifford's Tower on to a local York merchant family.[67] In 1642, however, the English Civil War broke out between the rival factions of the Royalists and Parliament. Forces loyal to Charles I, under the command of Henry Clifford, garrisoned York Castle and the surrounding city in 1643. York effectively became the "northern capital" for the Royalist cause.[68] Clifford repaired the castle and strengthened the walls to permit them to support cannon, placing his his arms alongside those of the king above the entrance.[69] Clifford's Tower's gatehouse was remodelled substantially from its origianl medieval appearance.[70] Baile Hill, on the other side of the river, became a gun emplacement.[69] The castle mint was reopened to supply the king's forces with coins.[71]
The war turned against the Royalist factions and on 23 April 1644 Parliamentary forces commenced the siege of York. A Scottish army under Alexander Leslie came from the south, while a Parliamentary force under Ferdinando Fairfax, came from the east.[72] Six weeks later, Edward Montagu, brought a third contingent to York, bringing the number of forces beseiging York to over 30,000 men. William Cavendish, commanded the city during the siege, while Colonel Sir Francis Cobb was appointed the governor of the castle.[69] Despite bombardment, attempts to undermine the walls, and attacks on the gates, the city held out thorough May and June.[73] Prince Rupert, sent to relieve York, approached with with reinforcements and through clever manoeuvring was able to force the besiegers to withdraw, lifting the siege on 1 July.[74] The next day Parliamentary forces defeated Rupert at the Battle of Marston Moor, six miles west of York, making the surrender of York and the castle inevitable.[75] On 14 July the city and castle surrendered to the Parliamentary forces, who permitted the Royalists to march out with full honours.[76]
Parliament then appointing Thomas Dickenson, the local mayor, as the governor of Clifford's Tower.[69] Control of the castle rested with the post of mayor until the Restoration.[77] Efforts were made to separate the structures of Clifford's Tower, which Parliament used as a garrison, from the buildings of the bailey, which continued to be used as a prison.[78] Oliver Cromwell visited Clifford's Tower in 1650, and received a salute from the guns stationed on top of it.[78] The cost of the garrison was levied on the city of York.[79]
After the Restoration of Charles II, the pre-war owners of the property laid claim to Clifford's Tower, eventually being granted ownership.[80] A garrison continued to be stationed there, however, which prevented them from actually occupying or using the property.[81] Repairs were made to the tower and it became a magazine for storing gunpowder and shot.[81] Attempts were made to restore the condition of the moat, which had become badly silted.[82] Some political prisoners continued to be held at the castle during the Restoration period, including George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends.[83]
The county facilities in the bailey were expanded during these years, with the Grand Jury House and the Common Hall both being improved, but by the 1680s the role of the military garrison at York Castle was being called into question.[84] Sir Christopher Musgrave produced a report for the Crown in 1682; he argued that it would cost at least £30,000 to turn the castle into a modern fortification, producing a proposal for the six bastions that such a star fort would require.[84] This work was never carried out.[84] Meanwhile, the garrison and the castle had became extremely unpopular with the people of York, who disliked both the cost and the imposition of external authority.[85]
On St. George's Day in 1684 at around 10pm, an explosion in the magazine destroyed the interior of Clifford's Tower entirely.[86] The official explanation was that the celebratory salute from the guns on the roof had set fire to parts of the woodwork, which in turn later ignited the magazine.[87] Most historians, however, believe the explosion was not accidental.[88] At the time, it was common in the city to toast the potential demolition of the "Minced Pie", as the castle was known to locals; suspiciously, parts of the garrison had moved their personal belongings to safety just before the explosion, and none of the garrison was injured by the event.[89] The heat of the fire discoloured the limestone of the tower to its current, slightly pink, colour.[90] The now-ruined tower was returned fully to private ownership, eventually forming part of the lands of the neighbouring house and gardens belonging to Samuel Ward.[91]
18th century
By 1701, the conditions of the county jail had become scandalous and the decision was taken to redevelop the area occupied by the old bailey.[46] A local tax helped to fund the development, and the king agreed for the ruins of St Mary's Abbey to be cannibalised for building stone.[46] Three new buildings were erected to the south of Clifford's Tower. A new County Gaol, built between 1701-5 by William Wakefield, was placed on the south side, closely resembling the fashionable work of John Vanbrugh.[92] The local architect John Carr then built the Assize Courts between 1773-7 on the west side, and the Female Prison, between 1780-3, on the east side, replacing the old Grand jury House and Common Hall respectively.[93] The Female Prison and County Gaol were later combined to become the Debtors' prison.[46] All three buildings were designed in a distinctive neoclassical style; the Assize Court building was particularly praised at the time as being "a superb building of the Ionic order".[94] The castle courtyard was grassed over to form a circle in 1777 and became known as the "Eye of the Ridings" because it was used for the election of Members of Parliament for York.[95]
Visits by the prison reformer John Howard as part of his research for his book The State of the Prisons found these prisons flawed, but in relatively good condition compared to others at the time.[96] The Debtor's prison as a whole was an "honour to the county" of York, with "airy and healthy" rooms, but the felon's wing of the prison suffered some criticism.[97] The felon's wing was "too small" and had "no water" for the inmates; felons were forced to sleep on piles of straw on the floor.[97] Indeed, conditions were so bad in the felon wing that nine prisoners suffocated in one night during 1739.[95]
Just outside the main walls, the castle mills had become increasingly less effective from the 16th century onwards, due to a reduction in the flow of the rivers driving the water wheels.[98] As a result, in 1778 they were rebuilt with a new steam engine to drive the machinery; this steam engine caused considerable discomfort to the local prisoners affected by the smoke and noise.[99]
19th and 20th centuries
Criticism of the castle prison increased at the end of the 18th century.[100] The facilities were felt to be inadequate and the crowds of spectators who gathered outside the prison to see inmates being taken into York for execution unseemly.[100] Attempts were made to improve the way executions were carried out from 1803 onwards, with the former castle courtyard, the Eye of the Ridings, being used for this purpose instead, although crowds still gathered outside the bailey to watch the slow deaths of the prisoners.[101] By 1813 the execution process had been sped up by the introduction of the "short drop" method of hanging, allowing the unusually rapid execution of fourteen Luddite agitators at the castle in 1814.[101] Overcrowding in the gaol was now also a problem, with up to 114 prisoners being held at any one time; on occasions around forty prisoners awaiting trial had to be kept in the gaol yard for lack of space elsewhere.[102]
The suitability of the prison was finally brought to a head at the 1821 assizes in York, when an official complaint was made and an investigation begun.[100] The decision was taken to purchase Clifford's Tower and Waud house, with the aim of demolishing them both to make room for a new, more modern prison.[103] Sydney Smith, a local writer and clergyman, successfully led a campaign to save Clifford's Tower, appealing to the historic importance of the location for the surrounding city.[104] One alternative proposal was put forward by architect Robert Wallace, which would have seen the conversion of Clifford's Tower back into a habitable building to form the hub of a radial prison design, but this too was turned down.[101]
In 1825, Clifford's Tower and Waud house were purchased by the county of Yorkshire at the cost of £8,800 (£665,000 at 2009 prices).[105][106] The new prison buildings, designed by architects Robinson and Andrews, were constructed in a Tudor Gothic style, including a 35 feet (11 metre) high gatehouse and a radial prison block, protected by a long, high stone wall.[107] The prison was considered to be the strongest such building in England, being made entirely of stone in order to be both secure and fireproof.[108] Dark grey gritstone was used in the construction to produce a more forbidding appearance, although the prison itself was considered healthy and well ventilated.[109] Clifford's Tower played no part in the formal design of the prison, although the talus, or sloping edge of the motte was cut away and replaced by a retaining wall in order to allow more space for the new prison building.[110] The backyard of the Female Prison was used for hangings from 1868 onwards, being politely concealed from public view by the new wall.[101] The 1877 Prisons Act reformed the English prison system and the York Castle gaol was passed into the control of central government the following year.[111] It was used as the county prison until 1900, when the remaining prisoners were transferred to Wakefield Prison, and from then onwards the facility was used as a military prison instead.[112]
By the early 19th century, dredging and other improvements to the river Foss had made it possible to import flour into York by river, reducing the economic significance of the castle mills.[113] In 1856 the castle mills were finally demolished as part of a further sequence of improvements to this part of the river.[114] The King's Pool that formed part of the castle's water defences was drained and built on.[113] With the construction of several new bridges near the castle, the site became "surrounded by roads instead of moats".[113]
In 1890 the Prison Commissioners agreed to declare Clifford's Tower a national monument and to conserve it as an historical location.[111] In 1902 Clifford's Tower was given to Yorkshire County Council, together with a grant of £3,000 (£242,000) arranged by Lord Wenlock for conversation and repairs.[115][106] The removal of the talus and the damage to the castle stonework in the 16th century had put excessive pressure on the supporting motte, causing a reoccurence of the 14th century subsidence.[116] Sir Basil Mott, a leading Victorian engineer, installed concrete underpinnings to compensate and stabilise the structure beneath the gatehouse.[116] By the early 20th century, Clifford's Tower was regularly open to visitors and in 1915 it was passed onto the Office of Works as a national monument.[117]
Today
York Prison finally closed in 1929 and the Tudor Gothic Victorian prison buildings were demolished in 1935.[118] The Assize Courts building now houses the York Crown Court, while the former Debtors' Prison is now the Castle Museum. The circular grassed area between these buildings that was once known as the "Eyes of the Ridings" is now known as Castle Green, or the "Eye of York".[101] Clifford's Tower is the most prominent surviving part of the original medieval fortification, although the stone steps up the side of the motte are modern.[23] Fragments of the bailey wall, parts of the south gatehouse and one of the corner towers also survive.[119]
The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument.[120] The site is open to the public, managed by English Heritage. Up until the 1970s, the pogrom of 1190 was often underplayed by official histories of the castle; early official guides to the castle made no reference to it.[121] In 1978, however, the first memorial tablet to the victims was laid at the base of Clifford's Tower, whilst in 1990 the eight hundredth anniversary of the killings was commemorated at the tower.[121] Recently, commercial interests have sought to introduce retail development to the area surrounding it. Citizens, visitors, academics, environmentalists, local businesspeople and Jewish groups have opposed the development with some success, winning a lengthy and bitter public inquiry in 2003.[122]
Notes
- ^ Hull and others draw on documentary evidence citing the castles were first burnt, then partially dismantled. Cooper disagrees, drawing on archaeological work that shows no evidence of fire having damaged the relevant layers of the mottes.
- ^ Comparison of medieval financial figures with modern equivalents is challenging, especially with the larger sums of money used for projects such as castles and prior to 1264, when many comparison figures are lacking. The £2,600 used to construct Clifford's Tower in 1244 could equate to from between £1,370,000 and £30,800,000 in 2009 terms, depending on the measure used.
- ^ For the purposes of this article, the keep is referred to as Clifford's Tower throughout.
- ^ Robert Ryther also served as the sheriff of Yorkshire twice himself, but was unusual in being granted control of the castle from 1478 onwards as well on a personal basis.
References
- ^ Butler, p.2.
- ^ a b c Brown, p.32.
- ^ Brown, p.110; Cooper, p.15.
- ^ Cooper, p.14.
- ^ Clark, p.239.
- ^ Pounds, p.7; Clark, p.239.
- ^ Brown, p.32; Pounds, p.7.
- ^ Brown, p.41; Butler, p.3.
- ^ a b c d Hull, p.98.
- ^ Hull, p.98; Cooper, p.18.
- ^ Cooper, p.16.
- ^ Cooper, p.18; Butler, p.13.
- ^ Clark, p.255; Cooper pp. 12-3.
- ^ Cooper, p.14.
- ^ Pounds, p.7.
- ^ a b c Cooper, p.23.
- ^ Cooper, p.117; Pounds, p.193.
- ^ Pounds, p.193.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Butler, p.14.
- ^ Hillaby, p.16.
- ^ Hillaby, pp. 21-2.
- ^ Stenton, p.197.
- ^ a b Hull, p.99.
- ^ Butler, p.15.
- ^ Hull, p.99; Coooper, p.25.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 27-9.
- ^ Cooper, p.28.
- ^ Cooper, p.91.
- ^ Cooper, p.113.
- ^ Brown, p.86; Cooper, p.31
- ^ Cooper, p.32.
- ^ Hull, p.99; Butler, p.4.
- ^ Brown, p.86.; Hull, p.99; Toy, p.133; Cooper, p.85, 87.
- ^ a b c Clark, p.256.
- ^ Toy, pp. 134-5.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 42-3.
- ^ Clark, p.257.
- ^ Brown, p.86; Butler, p.16.
- ^ Hull, p.99; Toy, p.133.
- ^ Cooper, p.63.
- ^ a b c Butler, p.17.
- ^ Cooper, p.76; Butler, p.17.
- ^ Cooper, p.50.
- ^ a b c d e f Musson, p.164.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.151.
- ^ a b c d e Twyford, p.45.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.98.
- ^ Cooper, p.111.
- ^ Cooper, p.97.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 102-3.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.126.
- ^ Cooper, p.51.
- ^ Cooper, p.115.
- ^ Pounds, p.258.
- ^ Cooper, p.143.
- ^ Cooper, p.147.
- ^ Timbs, p.170; Clark, p.255.
- ^ Cooper, p.148.
- ^ Cooper, p.126, 155.
- ^ Twyford, p.46.
- ^ a b c Cooper, p.158.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 146-7.
- ^ Butler, p.4.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.149.
- ^ Cooper, p.161.
- ^ Twyford, p.44; Butler, p.20.
- ^ Cooper, p.169.
- ^ Wedgwood, p.77.
- ^ a b c d Timbs and Gunn, p.170.
- ^ Butler, p.4.
- ^ Cooper, p.155.
- ^ Wedgwood, p.289.
- ^ Wedgwood, p.311.
- ^ Wedgwood, pp. 312-3.
- ^ Wedgwood, p.322.
- ^ Wedgwood, p.322; Twyford, p.41.
- ^ Twyford, p.41.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.173.
- ^ Cooper, p.172.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 180-1.
- ^ a b Clarke, p.261.
- ^ Twyford, p.42.
- ^ Cooper, p.181.
- ^ a b c Butler, p.20.
- ^ Cooper, p.183.
- ^ Clarke, p.261.
- ^ Butler, p.21.
- ^ Clarke, p.261.
- ^ Timbs and Gunn, p.170; Twyford, pp. 34-4.
- ^ Butler, p.4.
- ^ Cooper, p.177; Butler, p.21.
- ^ Butler, p.22.
- ^ Butler, p.8, 20, 22.
- ^ Butler, p.8; Twyford, p.49.
- ^ a b Butler, p.23.
- ^ Twyford, pp. 46-7.
- ^ a b Howard, quoted Twyford p.47.
- ^ Cooper, p.128.
- ^ Cooper, p.129.
- ^ a b c Cooper, p.191.
- ^ a b c d e Butler, p.23.
- ^ Cooper, p.148.
- ^ Cooper, pp. 191-2.
- ^ Cooper, p.192.
- ^ Twyford, p.44; Cooper, p.195.
- ^ a b Financial comparison based on the RPI index, using the Measuring Worth website. Accessed 25 October 2010.
- ^ Cooper, p.239; Twyford, p.45; Butler, p.24.
- ^ Sears, p.180.
- ^ Butler, p.24; Sears, p.180.
- ^ Cooper, p.195.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.196.
- ^ Butler, p.24.
- ^ a b c Butler, p.8.
- ^ Cooper, p.130.
- ^ Cooper, p.196, 200.
- ^ a b Cooper, p.200.
- ^ Cooper, p.208, Butler, p.24.
- ^ Butler, p.24.
- ^ Butler, p.9.
- ^ National Monuments Record. Accessed 15 October 2010.
- ^ a b Dobson, p.145.
- ^ York Castle Campaign website. Accessed 6 November 2010.
Bibliography
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- Butler, Lawrence. (1997) Clifford's Tower and the Castles of York.' London: English Heritage. ISBN 1850746737.
- Clark, G. T. (1874) "The Defences of York," in The Archaeological Journal, XXXI (1874).
- Cooper, Thomas Parsons. (1911) The History of the Castle of York, from its foundation to the current day with an account of the building of Clifford's Tower. London: Elliot Stock.
- Dobson, Barry. "The Medieval York Jewry Reconsidered," in Skinner (ed) 2003.
- Hillaby, Joe. (2003) "Jewish Colonisation in the Twelfth Century," in Skinner (ed) 2003.
- Hull, Lise E. (2006) Britain's Medieval Castles. Westport: Praeger. ISBN 9780275984144.
- Musson, Anthony. (2008) "Court Venues and the Politics of Justice," in Saul (ed) 2008.
- Pounds, Norman John Greville. (1990) The Medieval Castle in England and Wales: a social and political history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521458283.
- Saul, Nigel. (ed) (2008) Fourteenth Century England, Volume 5. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843833871.
- Sears, Robert. (1847) A New and Popular Pictorial Description of England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and the British Islands. New York: Robert Sears.
- Skinner, Patricia. (ed) (2003) The Jews in Medieval Britain: Historical, Literary, and Archaeological Perspectives. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press. ISBN 9780851159317.
- Stenton, Doris Mary. (1976) English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066–1307). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. ISBN 0140202528.
- Timbs, John and Alexander Gunn. (1872/2008) Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales Their Legendary Lore and Popular History, Volume 3. Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 9781443784009.
- Toy, Sidney. (1985) Castles: Their Construction and History. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486248981.
- Twyford, Anthony William. (1880/2010) Records of York Castle - Fortress, Courthouse and Prison. Alcester, UK: Read Books. ISBN 9781445571119.
- Wedgwood, C. V. (1970) The King's War: 1641-1647. London: Fontana.
External links
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