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However, in the presence of the fire ants, the lizard would begin twitching and flee from the area. In the case that contact was unavoidable, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would use an array of weaponized body movements such as limb and tail flicks. These flicks were able to deflect incoming fire ants. Occasionally, in high density fire ant regions, the lizard would eat ants to prevent them from reattempting an attack. This behavior is anti-predatory and does not exist as a method of nutrition. In most fire ant encounters, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would seek to avoid contact and would not chase the fire ants.<ref name=":1" />
However, in the presence of the fire ants, the lizard would begin twitching and flee from the area. In the case that contact was unavoidable, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would use an array of weaponized body movements such as limb and tail flicks. These flicks were able to deflect incoming fire ants. Occasionally, in high density fire ant regions, the lizard would eat ants to prevent them from reattempting an attack. This behavior is anti-predatory and does not exist as a method of nutrition. In most fire ant encounters, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would seek to avoid contact and would not chase the fire ants.<ref name=":1" />

A study was done in which native Puerto Rican Dwarf geckos were exposed to invasive red fire ants ''(Solenopsis invicta).'' In this study, some of the lizards were exposed to no fire ants, some were exposed to few fire ants, and others were exposed to many fire ants. It was found that the dwarf geckos displayed anti social behavior towards the fire ants. Many geckos ate the fire ants or attacked them. In turn, the fire ants frequently stung the geckos. None of the geckos died from the fire ants stinging them. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kelehear|first=Crystal|last2=Graham|first2=Sean P.|last3=Langkilde|first3=Tracy|date=2017-03-01|title=Defensive Strategies of Puerto Rican Dwarf Geckos (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis) Against Invasive Fire Ants|url=https://doi.org/10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-16-00042|journal=Herpetologica|volume=73|issue=1|pages=48–54|doi=10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-16-00042|issn=0018-0831}}</ref>


== Physiology ==
== Physiology ==

Revision as of 19:50, 9 November 2021

Sphaerodactylus macrolepis, which is also known as the big-scaled dwarf gecko or the big-scaled least gecko, is a lizard of the Sphaerodactylus genus. It was first documented in 1859 in the US Virgin Islands, specifically, St. Croix. The diurnal species has since been spotted in other locations such as Puerto Rico with major populations in Culebra.

Additionally, the big-scaled dwarf gecko displays sexual dimorphism with males being larger than females. Furthermore, size, particularly snout vent length, differs depending on the location of the lizard. Those in Puerto Rico are larger than their US Virgin Island counterparts. Additionally, the specie also exhibits significant sexual dichromatism in which the male and females are unique in coloration. A main difference is the colored head found in males but is lacking in females.

Another notable characteristic of the big-scaled dwarf gecko is their preference for cooler environments due to their miniature size which increases their rate of desiccation. Their total evaporative water loss grows with temperature and so these lizards’ behaviors and location alters during the day in order to seek out appropriate microhabitats.

Description

Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Family: Sphaerodactylidae
Genus: Sphaerodactylus
Species:
S. macrolepis
Binomial name
Sphaerodactylus macrolepis
Günther, 1859
Synonyms
  • Sphaerodactylus imbricatus - Fischer, 1881
  • Sphaerodactylus danforthi - Grant, 1931

The big-scaled dwarf gecko is small in size. Measuring in at only 0.285g as its mean mass,[2] the lizard also maintains a snout vent length which fluctuates from 1.7-2.7 cm with an average hitting around 2.4 cm.[3] The largest of the big-scaled dwarf geckos are found in Puerto Rico and those found in the Virgin Islands are smaller.[4] In Puerto Rico, the male lizards are about 2.7 cm, hitting the high end of the big-scaled dwarf gecko’s range while the females are about 2.4 cm. As such, the big-scaled dwarf gecko displays sexual dimorphism meaning that the male and female counterparts exist with obvious physical differences.

Sphaerodactylus macrolepis compared to fingers

In terms of appearance, the big-scaled dwarf gecko has its notable imbricate dorsal scales which overlap over each other. Located in the gular region, specifically the throat, the lizard displays keeled scales. As these scales travel down the length of the body, they become smooth around at the belly region and are so also at the tail. It is noteworthy that on top of sexual dimorphism, big-scaled dwarf geckos are sexually dichromatic, with each sex displaying a separate set of colors. Males have less patterned markings, no rings around the gular area, and have a colored head which can differ in shade. The head can be many different colors, from blue all the way to a brownish-orange. Unlike the males, the females never exhibit this sort of coloration on their head. Females though, have distinct markings that males lack such as the canthal line that starts at their snout and ends at their neck.[4]

Habitat and Distribution

The big-scaled dwarf gecko is distributed around the Puerto Rico region, ranging from Puerto Rico all the way to the US Virgin Islands.[4][5] In specific, the lizard occupies mostly Culebra in the former and St. Croix in the latter. The big-scaled dwarf gecko is commonly seen on the forest floor of the islands, in their preferred microhabitat of leaf litter.[2]

Conservation

Currently, the Sphaerodactylus macrolepis is classified as least concern by the IUCN. This classification was completed in 2015 in which the big-scaled dwarf gecko was found in stable population. They are common throughout the area around Puerto Rico and face no major threats to their existence.[6]

Population structure, speciation, and phylogeny

The big-scaled dwarf gecko, Sphaerodactylus macrolepis was first discovered in 1859 on St. Croix, a part of the US Virgin Islands.[5] Along with its Puerto Rican counterpart, S. grandisquamis, the S. macrolepis became interchangeable with S. monensis of Mona Island. Later on, studies noted a total five species of Sphaerodactylus in the region around Puerto Rico. These species were S. grandisquamis, S. danforthi, S. monensis, S. macrolepis, and subspecie S. macrolepis parvus. Eventually, S. grandisquamis, S. danforthi, and S. macrolepis were regarded as the same. At this point, further distinction between Sphaerodactylus in different locations were made for clarification. Big-scaled dwarf geckos found on the Virgin Islands and Culebra were declared S. macrolepis macrolepis (also known as S. danforthi and S. macrolepis as a whole) and those found in Vieques were named S. macrolepis inigoi. This separation occurred due to their slightly different scale types and coloration and was not based purely on location. Lastly, it is noteworthy that the previously mentioned S. macrolepis parvus eventually became its own specie and is no longer a part of the S. macrolepis umbrella. This came about due to new morphological data which pointed to its status as a different specie altogether.[4]

Diet

The diet of the big-scaled dwarf gecko is mostly tiny arthropods such as springtails.[7] Additionally, they have been documented eating drosophila fly larvae and adults.[8]

Reproduction and life cycle

Reproductive stress

Noting the small size of the big-scaled dwarf gecko, they are particularly prone to dehydration. Of the age groups, the young offspring and hatchlings are most affected by this problem. This issue can be circumvented by hatching in colder seasons.[9]

Enemies

Predators

While predation on the islands that the big-scaled dwarf gecko occupies is not extremely high, they are still hunted by other organisms such as the Anolis pelchullus, more commonly known as the Puerto Rican grass bush anole.[10] This occurs because of the big-scaled dwarf gecko’s very small size, hence the title “dwarf”. The Puerto Rican grass bush anole is considered small by anole standards with females measuring in at about 38mm. In comparison, the average big-scaled dwarf gecko sits around 20mm and is still smaller than a “small” anole. As such, predation of this sort can occur.

Additionally, it has been documented that the big-scaled dwarf gecko in the Virgin Islands region  are also hunted by birds such as the bridled quail dove (Geotrygon mystacea).[11] This predator prey relationship arises from a shared area of foraging. Both species are present on the forest floor.

Solenopsis invicta

Defensive mechanisms against fire ants

Due to an overlap of habitats, namely the forest floor, Solenopsis invicta, or the red imported fire ants, can come in contact with the big-scaled dwarf gecko. As such, the lizard has several defense mechanisms in place to protect themselves.

It was noted that when the big-scaled dwarf gecko was not near any fire ants, it displayed little to no body twitching and would remain relatively immobile. Stance changing was also common in this situation as to scout out threats.

However, in the presence of the fire ants, the lizard would begin twitching and flee from the area. In the case that contact was unavoidable, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would use an array of weaponized body movements such as limb and tail flicks. These flicks were able to deflect incoming fire ants. Occasionally, in high density fire ant regions, the lizard would eat ants to prevent them from reattempting an attack. This behavior is anti-predatory and does not exist as a method of nutrition. In most fire ant encounters, the big-scaled dwarf gecko would seek to avoid contact and would not chase the fire ants.[3]

A study was done in which native Puerto Rican Dwarf geckos were exposed to invasive red fire ants (Solenopsis invicta). In this study, some of the lizards were exposed to no fire ants, some were exposed to few fire ants, and others were exposed to many fire ants. It was found that the dwarf geckos displayed anti social behavior towards the fire ants. Many geckos ate the fire ants or attacked them. In turn, the fire ants frequently stung the geckos. None of the geckos died from the fire ants stinging them. [12]

Physiology

Thermoregulation

Because the big-scaled dwarf gecko is very small, it is not uncommon that they overheat and experience drying out. As such, they need to be careful in their thermoregulation so that they exist in an optimal environment for activity.

The big-scaled dwarf gecko’s ideal temperature varies slightly between males and females in which females preferring a hotter temperature at about 26˚C and males, 25˚C.[13] To achieve these temperatures, they seek cooler microhabitats such as leaf litter. During the late night and early morning, the big-scaled dwarf geckos can experience its preferred temperature in all microhabitats. However, optimal conditions are not always possible during the hotter parts of the afternoon and these lizards are often out of their favored range throughout this time. As predicted, the big-scaled dwarf gecko is not commonly spotted out of leaf litter in these hours.

Because of the preference for a cooler environment, big-scaled dwarf geckos can be found changing locations depending on the time of day, preferring shaded areas during the hotter hours. When leaf litter was not a possible habitat, these lizards were found in dense grass.

Furthermore, between adults and juveniles, there exists a disagreement between microhabitat preferences. Adults prefer dense grass and juveniles will choose grass or sand areas. While dense grass is cooler, the grass and sand areas are higher in humidity.

Evaporative water loss

As mentioned in the thermoregulation section, the big-scaled dwarf gecko easily experiences desiccation due to its small size. In its preferred temperatures of 26˚C and 25˚C for females and males respectively, the rate of total evaporative water loss was about 4.2 ± 0.58 mg. Above these temperatures, starting from 27˚C, total evaporative water loss began to increase proportionally with the temperature. At 30˚C, the total evaporative water loss measured at 5.4 ± 0.31 mg. Accordingly, the breathing rate of the big-scaled dwarf gecko also increased with the temperature. From 21˚C to 27˚C, the lizards’ breathing rates shoot up from 23.7 cycles per minute to 38.5 cycles per minute. This parallels the rise in total evaporative water loss.[8]

References

  1. ^ Platenberg, R., Joglar, R. & Rodriguez, C. 2016. Sphaerodactylus macrolepis (errata version published in 2017). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T75605505A115488645. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T75605505A75607799.en. Downloaded on 03 March 2019.
  2. ^ a b Rodda, Gordon H.; Perry, Gad; Rondeau, Renée J.; Lazell, James (2001). "The Densest Terrestrial Vertebrate". Journal of Tropical Ecology. 17 (2): 331–338. ISSN 0266-4674.
  3. ^ a b Kelehear, Crystal; Graham, Sean P.; Langkilde, Tracy (March 2017). "Defensive Strategies of Puerto Rican Dwarf Geckos (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis) Against Invasive Fire Ants". Herpetologica. 73 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-16-00042. ISSN 0018-0831.
  4. ^ a b c d Daza, Juan D.; Pinto, Brendan J.; Thomas, Richard; Herrera-Martinez, Alexandra; Scantlebury, Daniel P.; García, Luis F. Padilla; Balaraman, Rajesh P.; Perry, Gad; Gamble, Tony (2019-12-19). "The sprightly little sphaerodactyl: Systematics and biogeography of the Puerto Rican dwarf geckos Sphaerodactylus (Gekkota, Sphaerodactylidae)". Zootaxa. 4712 (2): zootaxa.4712.2.1. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4712.2.1. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 32230683.
  5. ^ a b Günther, A. (1859-09-01). "XXII.—On the reptiles from St. Croix, West Indies, collected by Messrs. A. and E. Newton". Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 4 (21): 209–217. doi:10.1080/00222935908697110. ISSN 0374-5481.
  6. ^ Rodriguez, Carlos; Joglar, Rafael; Islands), Renata Platenberg (University of the Virgin (2015-07-23). "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Sphaerodactylus macrolepis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2016-3.rlts.t75605505a75607799.en.
  7. ^ Reagan, D.P., and R.B. Waide (1996). The Food Web of a Tropical Rain Forest. University of Chicago Press, USA.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ a b Snyder, Greogry K. (1975-12-01). "Respiratory metabolism and evaporative water loss in a small tropical lizard". Journal of comparative physiology. 104 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1007/BF02482833. ISSN 1432-1351.
  9. ^ López-Ortiz, Ricardo; Lewis, Allen R. (2002). "Seasonal Abundance of Hatchlings and Gravid Females of Sphaerodactylus nicholsi in Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico". Journal of Herpetology. 36 (2): 276–280. doi:10.2307/1566001. ISSN 0022-1511.
  10. ^ Queiroz, K.; Losos, J. (2017). "^Anolis pulchellus^ (Puerto Rican Grass-bush Anole) and ^Sphaerodactylus macrolepis^ (Big-scaled Dwarf Gecko). Predator-prey interaction". undefined.
  11. ^ Boal, Clint W. (2008-11-09). "Predation of a Dwarf Gecko (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis) by a Bridled Quail-Dove (Geotrygon mystacea)". Journal of Caribbean Ornithology. 21 (1): 50–51. ISSN 1544-4953.
  12. ^ Kelehear, Crystal; Graham, Sean P.; Langkilde, Tracy (2017-03-01). "Defensive Strategies of Puerto Rican Dwarf Geckos (Sphaerodactylus macrolepis) Against Invasive Fire Ants". Herpetologica. 73 (1): 48–54. doi:10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-16-00042. ISSN 0018-0831.
  13. ^ Allen, Powell, Kaitlin Elizabeth, Robert (2015). "Thermal biology and microhabitat use in puerto rican eyespot geckos (Sphaerodactylus Macrolepis Macrolepis)". Herpetological Conservation and Biology.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Malhotra, Anita; Thorpe, Roger S. (1999), Reptiles & Amphibians of the Eastern Caribbean, Macmillan Education Ltd., p. 55, ISBN 0-333-69141-5.
  • Powell, Robert; Henderson, Robert W. (2001), "On the Taxonomic Status of Some Lesser Antillean Lizards", Caribb. J. Sci., 37 (3–4): 288–290.
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