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<!-- History and culture -->
<!-- History and culture -->
In 1811, [[Bernard Courtois]] isolated iodine from [[seaweed]] while in 1820 [[Jean-Francois Coindet]] linked iodine intake to goiter size.<ref name=Leung>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung AM, Braverman LE, Pearce EN | title = History of U.S. iodine fortification and supplementation | journal = Nutrients | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = 1740–1746 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23201844 | pmc = 3509517 | doi = 10.3390/nu4111740 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It initially came into use as a disinfectant and for goiter.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Starke JA | chapter = 14. Application of Iodine Water Purification Tablets: Iodine’s Efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum. | veditors = Preedy VR, Burrow GN, Watson RR | title=Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects|date=2009|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780080920863|page=135| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA135|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812100039/https://books.google.ca/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA135|archive-date=2017-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Sneader W | chapter = Legacy of the Past |title=Drug Discovery: A History|date=2005|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780471899792| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb6BOkj9fK4C&pg=PA66|language=en|url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170113125622/https://books.google.ca/books?id=Cb6BOkj9fK4C&pg=PA66 |archive-date=2017-01-13}}</ref> It is on the [[WHO Model List of Essential Medicines|World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines]].<ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | title = World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 | year = 2019 | hdl = 10665/325771 | author-link = World Health Organization | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | id = WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO | hdl-access=free }}</ref> [[Table salt]] with iodine, known as [[iodized salt]], is available in more than 110 countries.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Wesley AS, Horton S | chapter = Economics of Food Fortification | veditors = Watson RR, Gerald JK, Preedy VR |title=Nutrients, Dietary Supplements, and Nutriceuticals: Cost Analysis Versus Clinical Benefits|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781607613084|page=37|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-Vf9TGG91YC&pg=PA37|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113125249/https://books.google.ca/books?id=s-Vf9TGG91YC&pg=PA37|archive-date=2017-01-13}}</ref>
In 1811, [[Bernard Courtois]] isolated iodine from [[seaweed]] while in 1820 [[Jean-Francois Coindet]] linked iodine intake to goiter size.<ref name=Leung>{{cite journal | vauthors = Leung AM, Braverman LE, Pearce EN | title = History of U.S. iodine fortification and supplementation | journal = Nutrients | volume = 4 | issue = 11 | pages = 1740–1746 | date = November 2012 | pmid = 23201844 | pmc = 3509517 | doi = 10.3390/nu4111740 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It initially came into use as a disinfectant and for goiter.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Starke JA | chapter = 14. Application of Iodine Water Purification Tablets: Iodine’s Efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum. | veditors = Preedy VR, Burrow GN, Watson RR | title=Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects|date=2009|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780080920863|page=135| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA135|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812100039/https://books.google.ca/books?id=7v7g5XoCQQwC&pg=PA135|archive-date=2017-08-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Sneader W | chapter = Legacy of the Past |title=Drug Discovery: A History|date=2005|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780471899792| chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Cb6BOkj9fK4C&pg=PA66|language=en|url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170113125622/https://books.google.ca/books?id=Cb6BOkj9fK4C&pg=PA66 |archive-date=2017-01-13}}</ref> Iodinemis on the [[WHO Model List of Essential Medicines|World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines]].<ref name="WHO21st">{{cite book | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | title = World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 | year = 2019 | hdl = 10665/325771 | author-link = World Health Organization | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | id = WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO | hdl-access=free }}</ref>{{efn|WHO lists "iodine" in two forms, a 200&nbsp;mg capsule and various strengths of "iodized oil".<ref name="WHO2008"/><ref name="WHO21st"/> The oil does not contain elemental iodine.<ref name=Ingenbleek/>}} [[Table salt]] with non-elemental iodine, known as [[iodized salt]], is available in more than 110 countries.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Wesley AS, Horton S | chapter = Economics of Food Fortification | veditors = Watson RR, Gerald JK, Preedy VR |title=Nutrients, Dietary Supplements, and Nutriceuticals: Cost Analysis Versus Clinical Benefits|date=2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781607613084|page=37|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-Vf9TGG91YC&pg=PA37|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113125249/https://books.google.ca/books?id=s-Vf9TGG91YC&pg=PA37|archive-date=2017-01-13}}</ref>


==Forms and formulations==
==Formulations==
===Elemental iodine===
A number of iodine containing formulations are also used medically including:<ref name=WHO2015Use>{{cite book | vauthors = ((World Health Organization)) | year = 2015 | title = The selection and use of essential medicines. Twentieth report of the WHO Expert Committee 2015 (including 19th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines and 5th WHO Model List of Essential Medicines for Children) | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | author-link = World Health Organization | hdl = 10665/189763 | id = WHO technical report series;994 | hdl-access=free | isbn = 9789241209946 | issn = 0512-3054 }}</ref>
Elemental iodine is used as an [[antiseptic]] either as the element, or as the water-soluble [[triiodide]] anion I<sub>3</sub><sup>−</sup> generated ''in situ'' by adding [[iodide]] to poorly water-soluble elemental iodine (the reverse chemical reaction makes some free elemental iodine available for antisepsis).<ref name="WHO2008"/>

In the alternative, iodine may be produced from [[iodophor]]s, which contain iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent (the iodide ion may be thought of loosely as the iodophor in triiodide water solutions). Examples of such preparations include:<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Block SS |title=Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |date=2001 |page=159 |isbn=978-0-683-30740-5}}</ref>

* [[Tincture of iodine]]: iodine in ethanol, or iodine and [[sodium iodide]] in a mixture of ethanol and water.
* [[Lugol's iodine]]: iodine and iodide in water alone, forming mostly triiodide. Unlike tincture of iodine, Lugol's iodine has a minimised amount of the free iodine (I<sub>2</sub>) component.
⚫
* [[Povidone iodine]] (an [[iodophor]]).
* Iodine-V: iodine (I<sub>2</sub>) and [[fulvic acid]] form a [[clathrate compound]] (iodine molecules are "caged" by fulvic acid in this [[host-guest complex]]). A water-soluble, solid, stable, crystalline complex. Unlike other iodophors, Iodine-V only contains iodine in molecular (I<sub>2</sub>) form.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Köntös Z | title = Efficacy of "Essential Iodine Drops" against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 16 | issue = 7 | pages = e0254341 | date = 2021-07-09 | pmid = 34242340 | pmc = 8270147 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0254341 | bibcode = 2021PLoSO..1654341K | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The antimicrobial action of iodine is quick and works at low concentrations, and thus it is used in operating theatres.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Patwardhan N, Kelkar U | title = Disinfection, sterilization and operation theater guidelines for dermatosurgical practitioners in India | journal = Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology | volume = 77 | issue = 1 | pages = 83–93 | date = 2011 | pmid = 21220895 | doi = 10.4103/0378-6323.74965 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Its specific mode of action is unknown. It penetrates into microorganisms and attacks particular amino acids (such as [[cysteine]] and [[methionine]]), [[nucleotides]], and [[fatty acid]]s, ultimately resulting in [[cell death]]. It also has an [[antiviral]] action, but nonlipid viruses and [[parvovirus]]es are less sensitive than lipid enveloped viruses. Iodine probably attacks surface proteins of [[Viral envelope|enveloped]] viruses, and it may also destabilise membrane fatty acids by reacting with [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|unsaturated]] [[Carbon–carbon bond|carbon bonds]].<ref name="pmid9880479">{{cite journal | vauthors = McDonnell G, Russell AD | title = Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 147–179 | date = January 1999 | pmid = 9880479 | pmc = 88911 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.12.1.147 }}</ref>

===Iodine-containg salts===
As a nutrient, iodine enters cells as the [[iodide]] ion;<ref name="EskinGrotkowski1995">{{cite journal|last1=Eskin|first1=Bernard A.|last2=Grotkowski|first2=Carolyn E.|last3=Connolly|first3=Christopher P.|last4=Ghent|first4=William R.|title = Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands|journal = Biological Trace Element Research|year = 1995|volume = 49 |issue=1 |pmid = 7577324|doi = 10.1007/BF02788999|pages = 9–19|s2cid=24230708}}</ref> iodide is also the form of iodine found food such as kelp.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Nagataki | first1 = S. | last2 = Shizume | first2 = K. | last3 = Nakao | first3 = K. | doi = 10.1210/jcem-27-5-638 | title = Thyroid Function in Chronic Excess Iodide Ingestion: Comparison of Thyroidal Absolute Iodine Uptake and Degradation of Thyroxine in Euthyroid Japanese Subjects | journal = Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism | volume = 27 | issue = 5 | pages = 638–647 | year = 1967 | pmid = 4164900}}</ref>

The form of iodide salt most commonly used medically is [[potassium iodide]]. At low doses, it is one of the options for making iodized salt, along with the more stable [[potassium iodate]]. A saturated solution of [[potassium iodide]] is used to treat acute [[thyrotoxicosis]]. It is also used to block uptake of [[iodine-131]] in the thyroid gland (see isotopes section above), when this isotope is used as part of radiopharmaceuticals (such as [[iobenguane]]) that are not targeted to the thyroid or thyroid-type tissues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/p5906.htm |title=Solubility of KI in water |publisher=Hazard.com |date=1998-04-21 |access-date=2013-01-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eanm.org/scientific_info/guidelines/gl_radio_ther_benzyl.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617073253/http://www.eanm.org/scientific_info/guidelines/gl_radio_ther_benzyl.pdf | title=EANM procedure guidelines for 131I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine (131I-mIBG) therapy|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 June 2009|date=17 June 2009}}</ref>

Iodine-131 (usually as iodide) is a component of [[nuclear fallout]], and is particularly dangerous owing to the thyroid gland's propensity to concentrate ingested iodine and retain it for periods longer than this isotope's radiological half-life of eight days. For this reason, people at risk of exposure to environmental radioactive iodine (iodine-131) in fallout may be instructed to take non-radioactive potassium iodide tablets. The typical adult dose is one 130&nbsp;mg tablet per 24 hours, supplying 100&nbsp;mg (100,000 [[micrograms]]) of ionic iodine. (The typical daily dose of iodine for normal health is of order 100 micrograms; see "Dietary Intake" below.) Ingestion of this large dose of non-radioactive iodine minimises the uptake of radioactive iodine by the thyroid gland.<ref>[http://www.emergency.cdc.gov/radiation/ki.asp "CDC Radiation Emergencies"], U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 11 October 2006, accessed 14 November 2010.</ref>

Before the advent of organic [[chelating agent]]s, salts of iodide were given orally in the treatment of [[lead poisoning|lead]] or [[mercury poisoning]], such as heavily popularized by [[Louis Melsens]] and many nineteenth and early twentieth century doctors.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Cj9FAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP1 "Sur l'emploi de l'iodure de potassium pour combattre les affections saturnines et mercurielles"], in ''Annales de chimie et de physique'', t. 26, 3<sup>e</sup> série, 1849.</ref><ref name=KI_en>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5192934/ "On the Employment of Iodide of Potassium as a Remedy for the Affections Caused by Lead and Mercury"], in ''Br Foreign Med Chir Rev.'' 1853 Jan; 11(21): 201–224.</ref>

=== Organoiodine compounds ===
[[File:Diatrizoic acid.svg|thumb|right|[[Diatrizoic acid]], an iodine-containing radiocontrast agent]]
As an element with high [[electron density]] and atomic number, iodine absorbs X-rays weaker than 33.3&nbsp;keV due to the [[photoelectric effect]] of the innermost electrons.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Lancaster JL | chapter-url = http://ric.uthscsa.edu/personalpages/lancaster/DI-II_Chapters/DI_chap4.pdf | chapter = Chapter 4: Physical Determinants of Contrast | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20151010172937/http://ric.uthscsa.edu/personalpages/lancaster/DI-II_Chapters/DI_chap4.pdf | archive-date=10 October 2015 | title = Physics of Medical X-Ray Imaging | publisher = The University of Texas Health Science Center }}</ref> Organoiodine compounds are used with intravenous injection as X-ray [[radiocontrast]] agents. This application is often in conjunction with advanced X-ray techniques such as [[angiography]] and [[CT scan]]ning. At present, all water-soluble radiocontrast agents rely on [[Iodinated contrast|iodine-containing compounds]].


*[[Potassium iodide]] (supplement)
*[[Lugol’s solution]] (supplement and disinfectant)
⚫
*[[Povidone-iodine]] (disinfectant)
*[[Iohexol]] (contrast agent)
*[[Iohexol]] (contrast agent)
*[[Amidotrizoate]] (contrast agent)
*[[Amidotrizoate]] (contrast agent)
*[[Meglumine iotroxate]] (contrast agent)
*[[Meglumine iotroxate]] (contrast agent)
*[[Radioactive iodine]]
*[[Tincture of iodine]]
*So-called [[nascent iodine]]
*[[Iopanoic acid]] (contrast agent)
*[[Iopanoic acid]] (contrast agent)

*[[Amiodarone]] (30% iodine content)
''Iodized oil'', made by reacting ether [[ester]]s of [[fatty acid]]s form vegetable oil with [[hydroiodic acid]], is another important organoiodine preparation on the WHO List. As an iodine supplement, it is given by mouse once per year to prevent endemic goitre in remote communities.<ref name=WHO2008/><ref name=Ingenbleek>{{cite journal |last1=Ingenbleek |first1=Y |last2=Jung |first2=L |last3=Férard |first3=G |last4=Bordet |first4=F |last5=Dechoux |first5=L |last6=Goncalves |first6=Am |title=Iodised rapeseed oil for eradication of severe endemic goitre |journal=The Lancet |date=November 1997 |volume=350 |issue=9090 |pages=1542–1545 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(97)02427-6}}</ref> It is also used as a non-water-soluble radiocontrast.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olliff |first1=Julie |last2=Riley |first2=Peter |title=Radiological contrast agents and radiopharmaceuticals |journal=Side Effects of Drugs Annual |date=2012 |volume=34 |pages=749–760 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-59499-0.00046-5}}</ref>

[[Amiodarone]] is an organoiodide antiarrhythmic drug.


== References ==
== References ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}


Revision as of 07:15, 7 March 2024

Iodine
Clinical data
Trade namesIodoflex, Iodosorb, others
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
License data
Routes of
administration		topical, by mouth, IM
ATC code
Identifiers
CAS Number
UNII

Iodine is used to treat and prevent iodine deficiency and as an antiseptic.[1][2] For iodine deficiency[3] it can be given by mouth or injection into a muscle.[1] As an antiseptic it may be used on wounds that are wet or to disinfect the skin before surgery.[2]

Common side effects when applied to the skin include irritation and discoloration.[2] When taken by mouth or injection side effects may include allergic reactions, goitre, and thyroid dysfunction.[1] Use during pregnancy is recommended in regions where deficiency is common, otherwise it is not recommended.[1][2] Iodine is an essential trace element.[1]

In 1811, Bernard Courtois isolated iodine from seaweed while in 1820 Jean-Francois Coindet linked iodine intake to goiter size.[4] It initially came into use as a disinfectant and for goiter.[5][6] Iodinemis on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[7][a] Table salt with non-elemental iodine, known as iodized salt, is available in more than 110 countries.[9]

Forms and formulations

Elemental iodine

Elemental iodine is used as an antiseptic either as the element, or as the water-soluble triiodide anion I3− generated in situ by adding iodide to poorly water-soluble elemental iodine (the reverse chemical reaction makes some free elemental iodine available for antisepsis).[1]

In the alternative, iodine may be produced from iodophors, which contain iodine complexed with a solubilizing agent (the iodide ion may be thought of loosely as the iodophor in triiodide water solutions). Examples of such preparations include:[10]

The antimicrobial action of iodine is quick and works at low concentrations, and thus it is used in operating theatres.[12] Its specific mode of action is unknown. It penetrates into microorganisms and attacks particular amino acids (such as cysteine and methionine), nucleotides, and fatty acids, ultimately resulting in cell death. It also has an antiviral action, but nonlipid viruses and parvoviruses are less sensitive than lipid enveloped viruses. Iodine probably attacks surface proteins of enveloped viruses, and it may also destabilise membrane fatty acids by reacting with unsaturated carbon bonds.[13]

Iodine-containg salts

As a nutrient, iodine enters cells as the iodide ion;[14] iodide is also the form of iodine found food such as kelp.[15]

The form of iodide salt most commonly used medically is potassium iodide. At low doses, it is one of the options for making iodized salt, along with the more stable potassium iodate. A saturated solution of potassium iodide is used to treat acute thyrotoxicosis. It is also used to block uptake of iodine-131 in the thyroid gland (see isotopes section above), when this isotope is used as part of radiopharmaceuticals (such as iobenguane) that are not targeted to the thyroid or thyroid-type tissues.[16][17]

Iodine-131 (usually as iodide) is a component of nuclear fallout, and is particularly dangerous owing to the thyroid gland's propensity to concentrate ingested iodine and retain it for periods longer than this isotope's radiological half-life of eight days. For this reason, people at risk of exposure to environmental radioactive iodine (iodine-131) in fallout may be instructed to take non-radioactive potassium iodide tablets. The typical adult dose is one 130 mg tablet per 24 hours, supplying 100 mg (100,000 micrograms) of ionic iodine. (The typical daily dose of iodine for normal health is of order 100 micrograms; see "Dietary Intake" below.) Ingestion of this large dose of non-radioactive iodine minimises the uptake of radioactive iodine by the thyroid gland.[18]

Before the advent of organic chelating agents, salts of iodide were given orally in the treatment of lead or mercury poisoning, such as heavily popularized by Louis Melsens and many nineteenth and early twentieth century doctors.[19][20]

Organoiodine compounds

Diatrizoic acid, an iodine-containing radiocontrast agent

As an element with high electron density and atomic number, iodine absorbs X-rays weaker than 33.3 keV due to the photoelectric effect of the innermost electrons.[21] Organoiodine compounds are used with intravenous injection as X-ray radiocontrast agents. This application is often in conjunction with advanced X-ray techniques such as angiography and CT scanning. At present, all water-soluble radiocontrast agents rely on iodine-containing compounds.

Iodized oil, made by reacting ether esters of fatty acids form vegetable oil with hydroiodic acid, is another important organoiodine preparation on the WHO List. As an iodine supplement, it is given by mouse once per year to prevent endemic goitre in remote communities.[1][8] It is also used as a non-water-soluble radiocontrast.[22]

Amiodarone is an organoiodide antiarrhythmic drug.

References

  1. ^ WHO lists "iodine" in two forms, a 200 mg capsule and various strengths of "iodized oil".[1][7] The oil does not contain elemental iodine.[8]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h World Health Organization (2009). Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR (eds.). WHO Model Formulary 2008. World Health Organization. p. 499. hdl:10665/44053. ISBN 9789241547659.
  2. ^ a b c d "Iodine". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
  3. ^ "Iodine Deficiency". American Thyroid Association. Retrieved 18 November 2022.
  4. ^ Leung AM, Braverman LE, Pearce EN (November 2012). "History of U.S. iodine fortification and supplementation". Nutrients. 4 (11): 1740–1746. doi:10.3390/nu4111740. PMC 3509517. PMID 23201844.
  5. ^ Starke JA (2009). "14. Application of Iodine Water Purification Tablets: Iodine's Efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum.". In Preedy VR, Burrow GN, Watson RR (eds.). Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects. Academic Press. p. 135. ISBN 9780080920863. Archived from the original on 12 August 2017.
  6. ^ Sneader W (2005). "Legacy of the Past". Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471899792. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017.
  7. ^ a b World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
  8. ^ a b Ingenbleek, Y; Jung, L; Férard, G; Bordet, F; Dechoux, L; Goncalves, Am (November 1997). "Iodised rapeseed oil for eradication of severe endemic goitre". The Lancet. 350 (9090): 1542–1545. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)02427-6.
  9. ^ Wesley AS, Horton S (2010). "Economics of Food Fortification". In Watson RR, Gerald JK, Preedy VR (eds.). Nutrients, Dietary Supplements, and Nutriceuticals: Cost Analysis Versus Clinical Benefits. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 37. ISBN 9781607613084. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017.
  10. ^ Block SS (2001). Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-683-30740-5.
  11. ^ Köntös Z (9 July 2021). "Efficacy of "Essential Iodine Drops" against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)". PLOS ONE. 16 (7): e0254341. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1654341K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0254341. PMC 8270147. PMID 34242340.
  12. ^ Patwardhan N, Kelkar U (2011). "Disinfection, sterilization and operation theater guidelines for dermatosurgical practitioners in India". Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology. 77 (1): 83–93. doi:10.4103/0378-6323.74965. PMID 21220895.
  13. ^ McDonnell G, Russell AD (January 1999). "Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 12 (1): 147–179. doi:10.1128/CMR.12.1.147. PMC 88911. PMID 9880479.
  14. ^ Eskin, Bernard A.; Grotkowski, Carolyn E.; Connolly, Christopher P.; Ghent, William R. (1995). "Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands". Biological Trace Element Research. 49 (1): 9–19. doi:10.1007/BF02788999. PMID 7577324. S2CID 24230708.
  15. ^ Nagataki, S.; Shizume, K.; Nakao, K. (1967). "Thyroid Function in Chronic Excess Iodide Ingestion: Comparison of Thyroidal Absolute Iodine Uptake and Degradation of Thyroxine in Euthyroid Japanese Subjects". Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism. 27 (5): 638–647. doi:10.1210/jcem-27-5-638. PMID 4164900.
  16. ^ "Solubility of KI in water". Hazard.com. 21 April 1998. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
  17. ^ "EANM procedure guidelines for 131I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine (131I-mIBG) therapy" (PDF). 17 June 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2009.
  18. ^ "CDC Radiation Emergencies", U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 11 October 2006, accessed 14 November 2010.
  19. ^ "Sur l'emploi de l'iodure de potassium pour combattre les affections saturnines et mercurielles", in Annales de chimie et de physique, t. 26, 3e série, 1849.
  20. ^ "On the Employment of Iodide of Potassium as a Remedy for the Affections Caused by Lead and Mercury", in Br Foreign Med Chir Rev. 1853 Jan; 11(21): 201–224.
  21. ^ Lancaster JL. "Chapter 4: Physical Determinants of Contrast" (PDF). Physics of Medical X-Ray Imaging. The University of Texas Health Science Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2015.
  22. ^ Olliff, Julie; Riley, Peter (2012). "Radiological contrast agents and radiopharmaceuticals". Side Effects of Drugs Annual. 34: 749–760. doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-59499-0.00046-5.
  • "Iodine". Drug Information Portal. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
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