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===Eastern Christianity===
===Eastern Christianity===
During the [[Byzantine Empire]], between the 10th and 14th centuries, a tradition of prayer called [[hesychasm]] developed, particularly on [[Mount Athos]] in Greece, and continues to the present. Having been probably influenced by Indian approaches, this tradition uses a special posture and breathing rituals, accompanied by the repetition of a mantra. This style of prayer was at first opposed as heretical by [[Barlaam of Seminara|Barlam]] in [[Calabria]], but was defended by Saint [[Gregory Palamas]].<ref>''The Byzantine Empire'' by Robert Browning 1992 ISBN 0813207541 page 238</ref><ref>''The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453'' by Donald MacGillivray Nicol 2008 ISBN 0521439914 page 211</ref> Coming from ''hesychia'' ("stillness, rest, quiet, silence"), hesychasm continues to be practiced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and some other [[Eastern Church]]es of the [[Byzantine Rite]].<ref>Parry, Ken; David Melling (editors) (1999). ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity'' ISBN 0-631-23203-6 page 230</ref> Hesychasm has not gained significance in the [[Western Church|Western churches]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07301a.htm|title=Hesychasm|work=[[Catholic encyclopedia]]|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref>''OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history'' by Matthew Bunson 2004 ISBN 1592760260 page 433</ref>
During the [[Byzantine Empire]], between the 10th and 14th centuries, a tradition of prayer called [[hesychasm]] developed, particularly on [[Mount Athos]] in Greece, and continues to the present. St. [[Gregory of Sinai]] is considered by most to be the founder of the hesychastic approach to prayer.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Athos/General/AthosHistory.html|title=Mount Athos: History|work=Macedonian Heritage|accessdate=12 May, 2010}}</ref> Having been, perhaps, influenced by Indian approaches, this tradition uses a special posture and breathing rituals, accompanied by the repetition of a short prayer (traditionally the '[[Jesus Prayer]]'). "While some might compare it (hesychastic prayer) with a mantra, to use the Jesus Prayer in such a fashion is to violate its purpose. One is never to treat it as a string of syllables for which the 'surface' meaning is secondary. Likewise, hollow repetition is considered to be worthless (or even spiritually damaging) in the hesychast tradition."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://orthodoxwiki.org/Hesychasm|title=Hesychasm|work=OrthodoxWiki|accessdate=12 May, 2010}}</ref> This style of prayer was at first opposed as heretical by [[Barlaam of Seminara|Barlam]] in [[Calabria]], but was defended by Saint [[Gregory Palamas]].<ref>''The Byzantine Empire'' by Robert Browning 1992 ISBN 0813207541 page 238</ref><ref>''The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453'' by Donald MacGillivray Nicol 2008 ISBN 0521439914 page 211</ref> Coming from ''hesychia'' ("stillness, rest, quiet, silence"), hesychasm continues to be practiced in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and some other [[Eastern Church]]es of the [[Byzantine Rite]].<ref>Parry, Ken; David Melling (editors) (1999). ''The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity'' ISBN 0-631-23203-6 page 230</ref> Hesychasm has not gained significance in the [[Western Church|Western churches]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07301a.htm|title=Hesychasm|work=[[Catholic encyclopedia]]|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref>''OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history'' by Matthew Bunson 2004 ISBN 1592760260 page 433</ref>


In hesychasm the [[Jesus prayer]], consisting of the phrase: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of Living God, have mercy on me" is repeated either for a set period of time or a set number of times. Hesychasm is contrasted with the more mental or imaginative forms of Christian meditation in which a person is encouraged to imagine or think of events from the life of Jesus or sayings from the Gospel. Sometimes hesychasm has been compared to the meditative techniques of oriental religions and it is possible that there were interactions between Hesychasts and [[Sufis]], but this can not be proved.<ref>''An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches'' by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0521667380 page 128</ref>
In hesychasm the [[Jesus prayer]], consisting of the phrase: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of Living God, have mercy on me" is repeated either for a set period of time or a set number of times. Hesychasm is contrasted with the more mental or imaginative forms of Christian meditation in which a person is encouraged to imagine or think of events from the life of Jesus or sayings from the Gospel. Sometimes hesychasm has been compared to the meditative techniques of oriental religions and it is possible that there were interactions between Hesychasts and [[Sufis]], but this can not be proved.<ref>''An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches'' by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0521667380 page 128</ref>

Revision as of 17:58, 12 May 2010

A woman praying on Candlemas Day, by Marianne Stokes, 1901.

Christian meditation is a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God.[1] The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditari which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.[2]

Christian meditation contrasts with cosmic styles of oriental meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with discussions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.[3] While some non-Christian and mystic meditations use mantras to block thought and erase concepts, most traditions of Christian meditation are intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.[4][5] In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Holy See advised against mixing Christian and eastern styles of meditation.[6]

Christian meditation is the middle level in a broad three stage characterization of prayer: it involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.[7]

Context and structure

Christian meditation involves looking back on Jesus' life, thanksgiving and adoration of God for his action in sending the Son for salvation.[8] In her book The Interior Castle (Mansions 6, Chapter 7) Saint Teresa of Avila defined Christian meditation as follows:

"By meditation I mean prolonged reasoning with the understanding, in this way. We begin by thinking of the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son; and we do not stop there but proceed to consider the mysteries of His whole glorious life."[9]

Gospel of Matthew, c. 1700.

Quoting the Gospel of Matthew11:27: "No one knows the Father but only the Son and anyone whom the Son wants to reveal him" and I Corinthians2:12Template:Bibleverse with invalid book: "But we have received the Spirit who is from God so that we may realize what God has freely given us", theologian Hans von Balthasar explained the context of Christian meditation as follows:

"The dimensions of Christian meditation develop from God's having completed his self-revelation in two directions: Speaking out of his own, and speaking as a man, through his Son, disclosing the depths of man.... And this meditation can take place only where the revealing man, God's Son, Jesus Christ, reveals God as his Father: in the Holy Spirit of God, so we may join in probing God's depths, which only God's Spirit probes."[10]

Building on that theme, E. P. Clowney explained that three dimensions of Christian meditation are crucial, not merely for showing its distinctiveness, but for guiding its practice. The first is that Christian meditation is grounded in the Bible. Because the God of the Bible is a personal God who speaks in words of revelation, Christian meditation responds to this revelation and focuses on it, unlike mystic meditations which use mantras to block thought and erase concepts. The second distinctive mark of Christian meditation is that it responds to the love of God, as in I John 4:19Template:Bibleverse with invalid book: "We love, for he first loved us". The personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion is thus heightened in Christian meditation. The third dimension is that the revelations of the Bible and the love of God lead to the worship of God: making Christian meditation an exercise in praise.[11]

Thomas Merton characterized the goal of Christian meditation as follows: "The true end of Christian meditation is practically the same as the end of liturgical prayer and the reception of the sacraments: a deeper union by grace and charity with the Incarnate Word, who is the only Mediator between God and man, Jesus Christ."[12]

Christian meditation is distinct from and contrasts with cosmic styles of oriental meditation.[13][14][15] A 1989 document generally known as Aspects of Christian meditation set forth the position of the Holy See with respect to the differences between Christian and eastern styles of meditation. The document, issued as a letter to all Catholic bishops, stresses the differences between Christian and eastern meditative approaches. It warns of the dangers of attempting to mix Christian meditation with eastern approaches since that could be both confusing and misleading, and may result in the loss of the essential Christocentric nature of Christian meditation.[16][17][18]

History

Old Testament

In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה), which means to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה), which means to muse, or rehearse in one's mind. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete which emphasized meditation's movement in the depth of the human heart. Melete was a reminder that one should never let meditation be a formality. The Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio.[19]

The Bible mentions meditate or meditation about twenty times, fifteen times in the Book of Psalms alone. When the Bible mentions meditation, it often mentions obedience in the next breath. An example is the Book of JoshuaJoshua 1:8: "Do not let this Book of the Law depart from your mouth; meditate on it day and night."[20]

Lectio Divina

A monk walking in a Benedictine monastery.

Daily life in a Benedictine monastery consisted of three elements: liturgical prayer, manual labor and Lectio Divina, a quiet prayerful reading of the Bible. This slow and thoughtful reading of Scripture, and the ensuing pondering of its meaning, was their meditative practice called "divine reading" or "sacred reading", or Lectio Divina.[21]

According to Jean Leclercq, OSB, the founders of the medieval tradition of Lectio Divina were Saint Benedict and Pope Gregory I in the sixth century. However, the methods that they employed had precedents in the biblical period both in Hebrew and Greek. A text that combines these traditions is the Epistle to the Romans 10:8 where Apostle Paul refers to the presence of God's word in the believer's "mouth or heart". It was the recitation of the biblical text that provided the rationale for Lectio Divina.[22]

Saint Benedict in his Rule (chapter #48) stipulated specific times and manners for Lectio Dinvina. The progression from Bible reading, to meditation, to prayer, to loving regard for God, was first formally described by Guigo II, a Carthusian monk and prior of Grande Chartreuse monastery in the 12th century. Guigo named the four steps of this "ladder" of Lectio Divina prayer with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio. In Guigo's four stages one first reads, which leads to think about (i.e. meditate on) the significance of the text; that process in turn leads the person to respond in prayer as the third stage. The fourth stage is when the prayer, in turn, points to the gift of quiet stillness in the presence of God, called contemplation.[23][24]

Approaches to meditation

A number of saints and historical figures have followed and presented specific approaches to Christian meditation.

St. Ignatius of Loyola

The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) - the founder of the Jesuits, contain numerous meditative exercises. To this day, the Spiritual Exercises remain an integral part of the Novitiate training period of the Roman Catholic religious order of Jesuits.[25]

The exercises are intended as notes to guide a spiritual director who is leading someone else through an experience of Christian meditation. The entire experience takes about 30 days and often involves a daily interview with the director. The process begins with a consideration of the purpose of one's life and the relationship with the rest of creation. It is followed by a week of meditation about sin and its consequences. Next comes a period of meditating on the events of the life of Jesus, and another for thinking about his suffering and death. The final week is to experience the joy of the resurrection, and in conclusion to reflect on God's love and the response of love for God.[26]

The exercises often involve imagery in which one enters a biblical scene. For example, the practitioner is encouraged to visualize and meditate upon scenes from the life of Christ, at times asking questions from Christ on the cross, during crucifixion.[27]

St. Teresa of Avila

Saint Teresa of Avila depicted by Rubens, 1615. She is often considered one of the most important Christian mystics.[28]

St. Teresa of Avila (1515–1582) a Doctor of the Church, practiced contemplative prayer for periods of one hour at a time, twice a day. St. Teresa believed that no one who was faithful to the practice of meditation could possibly lose his soul.[29] Her writings are viewed as fundamental teachings in Christian spirituality.[30][31]

St. Teresa taught her nuns to meditate on specific prayers. Her prayers described in The Way of Perfection involve meditation on a mystery in the life of Jesus and are based on the faith that "God is within", a truth that Teresa said she learned from St. Augustine.[32]

In her Life, she wrote that she taught herself from the instructions given in the book, The Third Spiritual Alphabet - by Francisco de Osuna - which relates to Franciscan mysticism.[33][34][35] Her starting point was the practice of "recollection", i.e. keeping the senses and the intellect in check and not allowing them to stray. In her meditations, one generally restricts attention to a single subject, principally the love of God. In The Way of Perfection she wrote: "It is called recollection because the soul collects together all the faculties and enters within itself to be with God".[36] She would use devices such as short readings, a scene of natural beauty or a religious statue or picture to remind her to keep her focus. She wrote that in due course, the mind naturally learns to maintain focus on God almost effortlessly.[37][38][39]

St. Theresa viewed Christian meditation as the first of four steps in achieving "union with God", and used the analogy of watering the garden. She compared basic meditation to watering a garden with a bucket, Recollection to the water wheel, Quiet (contemplation) to a spring of water and Union to drenching rain.[40]

St. Francis de Sales

Saint Francis de Sales (1576–1622) used a four part approach to Christian meditation based on "preparation", "consideration", "affections and resolutions" and "conclusions":[41]

  • In the preparation part, one places oneself in the presence of God and asks the Holy Spirit to direct the prayer, as in the Epistle to the Romans8:26: "The Spirit helps us in our weakness, for we do not know what to pray for, but the Spirit himself intercedes for us with sighs too deep for words."
  • In the consideration part, one focuses on a specific topic, e.g. a passage from the Bible.
  • In the affections and resolutions part, one focuses on feelings and makes a resolution or decision. For instance, when meditating on the Parable of the Good Samaritan one may decide to visit someone sick and be kind to them.
  • In the conclusion part, one gives thanks and praise to God for the considerations and asks for the grace to stand by the resolution.

Denominational issues

Catholic Church

Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) said that meditation is necessary for devotion, and the Second Vatican Council called for "faithful meditation on God's word" as part of the spiritual formation of seminarians.[42]

Saint Padre Pio stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds him".[43]

Saint John of the Cross (1542-1591), a close friend of St. Teresa of Avila, viewed Christian meditation as a necessary step toward union with God, and wrote that even the most spiritually advanced persons always needed to regularly return to meditation.[44]

Saint Padre Pio (1887-1968), who was devoted to rosary meditations, said:[45]

"The person who meditates and turns his mind to God, who is the mirror of his soul, seeks to know his faults, tries to correct them, moderates his impulses, and puts his conscience in order."

The Catechism of the Catholic Church encourages meditation and states: "Meditation is above all a quest. The mind seeks to understand the why and how of the Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking" (Catechism item # 2705) and that Christians owe it to themselves to develop the desire to meditate regularly (# 2707). Emphasizing union with God, it states: "Christian prayer tries above all to meditate on the mysteries of Christ, as in lectio divina or the rosary. This form of prayerful reflection is of great value, but Christian prayer should go further: to the knowledge of the love of the Lord Jesus, to union with him" (#2708).[46]

Rosary meditations

Main article: Rosary devotions and spirituality

The practice of meditation during the praying of repeated Hail Marys dates back to 15th century Carthusian monks, and was soon adopted by the Dominicans at large.[47] By the 16th century the practice of meditation during the rosary had spread across Europe, and the book Meditationi del Rosario della Gloriosa Maria Virgine (i.e. Meditations on the Rosary of the Glorious Virgin Mary) printed in 1569 for the rosary confraternity of Milan provided an individual meditation to accompany each bead or prayer.[48]

Saint Teresa of Avila's meditative approach of focusing on "the favor which God bestowed upon us by giving us His only Son" can be viewed as the basis of most scriptural rosary meditations.[49] In his 2002 encyclical Rosarium Virginis Mariae, Pope John Paul II placed the rosary at the very center of Christian spirituality.[50] Emphasizing that the final goal of Christian life is to be transformed, or "transfigured", into Christ he stated that the rosary helps believers come closer to Christ by contemplating Christ. He stated that the rosary unites us with Mary's own prayer, who, in the presence of God, prays with us and for us. [51] and stated that: "To recite the rosary is nothing other than to contemplate with Mary the face of Christ."[52]

Eastern Christianity

During the Byzantine Empire, between the 10th and 14th centuries, a tradition of prayer called hesychasm developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and continues to the present. St. Gregory of Sinai is considered by most to be the founder of the hesychastic approach to prayer.[53] Having been, perhaps, influenced by Indian approaches, this tradition uses a special posture and breathing rituals, accompanied by the repetition of a short prayer (traditionally the 'Jesus Prayer'). "While some might compare it (hesychastic prayer) with a mantra, to use the Jesus Prayer in such a fashion is to violate its purpose. One is never to treat it as a string of syllables for which the 'surface' meaning is secondary. Likewise, hollow repetition is considered to be worthless (or even spiritually damaging) in the hesychast tradition."[54] This style of prayer was at first opposed as heretical by Barlam in Calabria, but was defended by Saint Gregory Palamas.[55][56] Coming from hesychia ("stillness, rest, quiet, silence"), hesychasm continues to be practiced in the Eastern Orthodox Church and some other Eastern Churches of the Byzantine Rite.[57] Hesychasm has not gained significance in the Western churches.[58][59]

In hesychasm the Jesus prayer, consisting of the phrase: "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of Living God, have mercy on me" is repeated either for a set period of time or a set number of times. Hesychasm is contrasted with the more mental or imaginative forms of Christian meditation in which a person is encouraged to imagine or think of events from the life of Jesus or sayings from the Gospel. Sometimes hesychasm has been compared to the meditative techniques of oriental religions and it is possible that there were interactions between Hesychasts and Sufis, but this can not be proved.[60]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Christian Meditation for Beginners by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, ISBN 0884893618 page 7
  2. ^ An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 ISBN 8171094295 pages 76-77
  3. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 page 12
  4. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 pages 12-13
  5. ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 9004126546 page 488
  6. ^ EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), October 15, 1989
  7. ^ Simple Ways to Pray by Emilie Griffin 2005 ISBN 0742550842 page 134
  8. ^ Systematic theology, Volume 3 by Wolfhart Pannenberg, Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1997 ISBN 0802837085 page 210
  9. ^ This Is Your Mother: The Scriptural Roots of the Rosary by Ronald Walls, 2003 ISBN 0852444036 page 4
  10. ^ Hans Urs von Balthasar, 1989 Christian meditation Ignatius Press ISBN 0898702356 pages 9-10
  11. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 pages 12-13
  12. ^ Spiritual direction and meditation by Thomas Merton 1960 ISBN 0814604129 page 105
  13. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 page 12
  14. ^ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1573832278 pages 12-13
  15. ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 9004126546 page 488
  16. ^ Vatican website: Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in German), October 15, 1989
  17. ^ EWTN: Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), October 15, 1989
  18. ^ Catholicism in dialogue: conversations across traditions‎ by Wayne Teasdale 2004 ISBN 0742531783 Page 74
  19. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0809136600 page 88
  20. ^ Study & Meditation, by Jan Johnson 2003 ISBN 0830820914 pages 29-30
  21. ^ Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 ISBN 0829420819 page 20
  22. ^ After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 ISBN 0812236025 page 105
  23. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0809136600 page 38
  24. ^ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0814631762 page 109
  25. ^ The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola by St Ignatius Loyola 2007 ISBN 1602063737 page 15
  26. ^ 2000 Years of Prayer by Michael Counsell 2004 ISBN 1853116238 page 203
  27. ^ Ignatius de Loyola, powers of imagining 1986 by Antonio T. De Nicolás, ISBN 0887061095 pages 123-125
  28. ^ An Anthology of Christian mysticism by Harvey D. Egan 1991 ISBN 0814660126 page 413
  29. ^ Spiritual direction and meditation by Thomas Merton 1960 ISBN 0814604129 page 108
  30. ^ Teresa of Avila by Rowan Williams 1991 ISBN 0826473415 page vii
  31. ^ "St. Teresa of Avila". Catholic encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
  32. ^ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0809136600 page 96
  33. ^ Teresa of Avila: The Book of My Life by Tessa Bielecki, Mirabai Starr 2008 ISBN 1590305736 page 20
  34. ^ An Anthology of Christian mysticism by Harvey D. Egan 1991 ISBN 0814660126 pages 413-415
  35. ^ Teresa of Avila by Rowan Williams 1991 ISBN 0826473415 page 4
  36. ^ The Way of Perfection by St Teresa of Avila 2007 ISBN 1602062609 page 160
  37. ^ Teresa, a woman: a biography of Teresa of Avila by Victoria Lincoln 1995 ISBN 087395937X page xvii
  38. ^ Teresa of Avila by Rowan Williams 1991 ISBN 0826473415 page 66
  39. ^ Teresa of Avila: The Progress of a Soul by Cathleen Medwick 2001 ISBN 0385501293 page 64
  40. ^ A history of Christian spirituality: an analytical introduction by Urban Tigner Holmes, 2002 ISBN 0819219142 page 98
  41. ^ An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 ISBN 8171094295 pages 77-78
  42. ^ The Teaching of Christ: A Catholic Catechism for Adults by Donald W. Wuerl, Ronald Lawler 2004 ISBN 1592760945 page 350
  43. ^ The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer by Liz Kelly 2004 ISBN 082942024X pages 79 and 86
  44. ^ St. John of the Cross: an appreciation by Daniel A. Dombrowski 1992 ISBN 0791408876 page 168
  45. ^ The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer by Liz Kelly 2004 ISBN 082942024X pages 79 and 86
  46. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church by David Bordwell 2002 ISBN 0860123243 pages 570-615
  47. ^ Encyclopedia of monasticism, Volume 1 by William M. Johnston, 2000 ISBN 1579580904 page 246
  48. ^ Music in the collective experience in sixteenth-century Milan by Christine Suzanne Getz, 2006 ISBN 0754651215 page 261
  49. ^ This Is Your Mother: The Scriptural Roots of the Rosary by Ronald Walls, 2003 ISBN 0852444036 page 4
  50. ^ The Rosary with John Paul II by George Madore, 2004, Alba House, ISBN 2894205457 page 18
  51. ^ The Rosary with John Paul II by George Madore, 2004, ISBN 2894205457 page 19
  52. ^ Rosarium Virginis Mariae, #3
  53. ^ "Mount Athos: History". Macedonian Heritage. Retrieved 12 May, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  54. ^ "Hesychasm". OrthodoxWiki. Retrieved 12 May, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  55. ^ The Byzantine Empire by Robert Browning 1992 ISBN 0813207541 page 238
  56. ^ The last centuries of Byzantium, 1261-1453 by Donald MacGillivray Nicol 2008 ISBN 0521439914 page 211
  57. ^ Parry, Ken; David Melling (editors) (1999). The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity ISBN 0-631-23203-6 page 230
  58. ^ "Hesychasm". Catholic encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
  59. ^ OSV's encyclopedia of Catholic history by Matthew Bunson 2004 ISBN 1592760260 page 433
  60. ^ An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0521667380 page 128
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