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===Polls===
===Polls===


The [[Association for Civil Rights in Israel]] (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that racism in the country was increasing. However, Israel's Minister said the rights group's report was biased and without credibility.<ref>"Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm</ref> One analysis of the report summarized it: "Over two-thirds Israeli teen believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March of 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes."<ref>Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html</ref> The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.<ref>"Reflections on October 2000 - Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" - news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556</ref>, However the [[Jerusalem Post]] explained that, suffering from violence by many Israeli Arabs<ref name=mfa />, Israelis are geuninely worried, they are not ''racists.''<ref>http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=49178</ref>
The [[Association for Civil Rights in Israel]] (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that racism in the country was increasing.<ref>"Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm</ref> One analysis of the report summarized it: "Over two-thirds Israeli teen believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March of 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes."<ref>Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html</ref> The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.<ref>"Reflections on October 2000 - Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" - news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556</ref>, However the [[Jerusalem Post]] explained that, suffering from violence by many Israeli Arabs<ref name=mfa />, Israelis are geuninely worried, they are not ''racists.''<ref>http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=49178</ref>


===Israeli Media and Arabs===
===Israeli Media and Arabs===
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==Directed at Jewish groups==
==Directed at Jewish groups==


Israelis of European or German ancestry are described as viewing themselves as superior to Israelis of other ancestries, and maintaining an elite ,secular elite <ref name=gerbershoshana>Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009, p 62</ref>, position in Israel society.<ref>Torstrick, Rebecca L., ''The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel'', University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32</ref><ref name=gerbershoshana>p 54-56</ref> and some decribe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.<ref>Ruttenberg, Danya, ''Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism'', p 178</ref> However, Some academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}>
Israelis of European or German ancestry ([[Ashkenazi]]) are described as viewing themselves as superior to Israelis of other ancestries, and maintaining an elite position in Israel society,<ref>Torstrick, Rebecca L., ''The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel'', University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32</ref><ref>Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009, p 54-56</ref> and some decribe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.<ref>Ruttenberg, Danya, ''Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism'', p 178</ref>


The differnces between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as ''Adatiyut'' <ref>http://www.allbookstores.com/Jews_Oriental_p4sd.html</ref><ref>http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf</ref><ref>http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=jpoKj4IH5qQC&pg=PA250</ref> community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/israel/Contemporary_Life/Society_and_Religious_Issues/Ashkenazic-Sephardic_Ethnic_Division.shtml]</ref>
However, Some academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} For example, the differnces between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as ''Adatiyut'' <ref>http://www.allbookstores.com/Jews_Oriental_p4sd.html</ref><ref>http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf</ref><ref>http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf</ref><ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=jpoKj4IH5qQC&pg=PA250</ref> community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).<ref>[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/israel/Contemporary_Life/Society_and_Religious_Issues/Ashkenazic-Sephardic_Ethnic_Division.shtml]</ref>
Materials published by various Arab information agencies stress the disabilities of the Edot Hamizrach.{{Clarify|date=August 2010}} They are portrayed as victims of Ashkenazi racism and economic exploitation. The Arab propaganda exaggerates the otherwise normality and harmony between the communities.<ref>''Jewish spectator'' School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24</ref>''they live in full harmony with their Sephardi brethren''.<ref>''American Jewish Congress'' 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53-54, p. 34</ref>
Some sources claim that reports of inter-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.<ref>''Jewish spectator'' School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24</ref><ref>''American Jewish Congress'' 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53-54, p. 34</ref>


===Sephardim===
===Sephardim===
[[Ashkenazi]] Jews in Israel, its system is criticized since the beginning, Ashkenazic secular leaders of the State vs Sephardim.
[[Ashkenazi]] Jews in Israel, particularly of the Orthodox movement, have been alleged to discrimate against [[Sephardi Jews]] and view them inferior.<ref>
⚫
* Shohat, Ella, "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the standpoint of its Jewish victims", in ''Dangerous liaisons: gender, nation, and postcolonial perspectives'', Anne McClintock, Aamir Mufti, Ella Shohat (Eds), U of Minnesota Press, 1997, p 42-44. Originally published as "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims" in 'Social Text'', No. 19/20 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 1-35
<ref>''Jewish action,'' Volume 59
⚫
* [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3444634,00.html Haredi school rejects 'Sephardi' child - Talmud Torah school rejects four-year-old due to Sephardi grandfather. Principal says child has ‘stain’ in genealogy]
⚫
Author Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, Publisher Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, 1998, p. 21</ref>, Ela Shohat a known harsh critic of Zionists, very controversial even by the liberal, progressive Forward<ref>http://www.forward.com/articles/12561</ref> said that particularly of the Orthodox movement, have sometimes viewed [[Sephardi Jews]] as inferior.<ref>Shohat, Ella, "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the standpoint of its Jewish victims", in ''Dangerous liaisons: gender, nation, and postcolonial perspectives'', Anne McClintock, Aamir Mufti, Ella Shohat (Eds), U of Minnesota Press, 1997, p 42-44. Originally published as "Sephardim in Israel: Zionism from the Standpoint of Its Jewish Victims" in
* Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987 (Yoram Dinstein) p 249
⚫
''Social Text'', No. 19/20 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 1-35</ref><ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3444634,00.html Haredi school rejects 'Sephardi' child - Talmud Torah school rejects four-year-old due to Sephardi grandfather. Principal says child has ‘stain’ in genealogy]</ref>
*Medding, Peter, ''Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews'', p 128-129
</ref> However, some claim that this discrimination is class-based, not race-based.{{fact}}


Examples of such attitudes have been reported in the school system, where Sephardi students are sometimes excluded, or are segregated within the school building.<ref>[http://www.alfassa.com/haredi_discrimination.html Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa] "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-shasha/sephardim-ashkenazim-and_b_615692.html Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel, by David Shasha]</ref>
Examples of such attitudes have been reported in the school system, where Sephardi students are sometimes excluded, or are segregated within the school building.<ref>[http://www.alfassa.com/haredi_discrimination.html Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa] "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."</ref><ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-shasha/sephardim-ashkenazim-and_b_615692.html Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel, by David Shasha]</ref>


===Mizrahi===
===Mizrahi===
Israeli society has been described as harboring racist views towards persons of Middle Eastern and North African descent, knows as [[Mizrahi]] Jews (or "oriental Jews").<ref>Smooha, Sammy, "Jewish Ethnicity in Israel: Symbolic or Real?", in ''Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns'', Uzi Rebhun (Ed.), UPNE, 2004, p 60-74</ref><ref>Khazzoom, Loolwa, ''The flying camel: essays on identity by women of North African and Middle Eastern Jewish heritage'', Seal Press, 2003, p 69</ref><ref>Sharoni, Simona, "Feminist Reflections on the Interplay of Sexism and Racism in Israel", in ''Challenging racism and sexism: alternatives to genetic explanations'', Ethel Tobach, Betty Rosoff (Eds), Feminist Press, 1994, p 309-331</ref><ref>Hanieh, Adam, "The Reality Behind Israeli Socialism", in ''The Palestinian Struggle, Zionism and Anti-Semitism'', Sean Malloy, Doug Lorimer, Doug Lorimer (Eds), Resistance Books, 2002, p 21-22</ref><ref>Lefkowitz, Daniel, ''Words and stones: the politics of language and identity in Israel'', p 15</ref>
Israeli society has been described as harboring racist views towards persons of Middle Eastern and North African descent, knows as [[Mizrahi]] Jews (or "oriental Jews").<ref>
* Smooha, Sammy, "Jewish Ethnicity in Israel: Symbolic or Real?", in ''Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns'', Uzi Rebhun (Ed.), UPNE, 2004, p 60-74
* Khazzoom, Loolwa, ''The flying camel: essays on identity by women of North African and Middle Eastern Jewish heritage'', Seal Press, 2003, p 69
* Sharoni, Simona, "Feminist Reflections on the Interplay of Sexism and Racism in Israel", in ''Challenging racism and sexism: alternatives to genetic explanations'', Ethel Tobach, Betty Rosoff (Eds), Feminist Press, 1994, p 309-331
* Hanieh, Adam, "The Reality Behind Israeli Socialism", in ''The Palestinian Struggle, Zionism and Anti-Semitism'', Sean Malloy, Doug Lorimer, Doug Lorimer (Eds), Resistance Books, 2002, p 21-22
* Lefkowitz, Daniel, ''Words and stones: the politics of language and identity in Israel'', p 15
* Thomas, Amelia, ''Israel and the Palestinian Territories'', p 43
* Zohar, Zion, ''Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: from the Golden Age of Spain to modern times'', p 324
* Medding, Peter Y. ''Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews'', p 81</ref>


Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice in Israel is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".<ref>Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in ''The American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576-590, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584</ref>
Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice in Israel is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".<ref>Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in ''The American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576-590, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584</ref>


====Yemenite babies disappearance====
====Yemenite babies disappearance====
Israeli Jews of European descent were accused of collaborating in the disappearance of babies of Yemeni Jews and racist motives were alleged. In 1950s, the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel were accused of kidnapping of between 2,400 and 10,000 children from their recently arrived Yemeni families. In most instances, the parents claim that they were told their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented or graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents.<ref>''Solving the Mystery of Missing Yemeni Babies, ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Forrest Sawyer and Linda Patillo Reporting, August 25, 1997'']</ref><ref> name=madmonigerber></ref>
Israeli Jews of European descent were accused of collaborating in the disappearance of babies of Yemeni Jews and racist motives were alleged. In 1950s, the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel were accused of kidnapping of between 2,400 and 10,000 children from their recently arrived Yemeni families. In most instances, the parents claim that they were told their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented or graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents.<ref>''Solving the Mystery of Missing Yemeni Babies, ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Forrest Sawyer and Linda Patillo Reporting, August 25, 1997'']</ref><ref>Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009</ref><ref>See also, regarding media and Yemeni Jews: Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, ''Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair'', Macmillan, 2009</ref>


Dov Levitan, a leading scholar on Yemenite immigration at [[Bar-Ilan University]], said he found "no evidence of an organized [[conspiracy]]" to kidnap "Yemenite children for adoption." He attributes the disappearances to negligence, citing the daily skirmishes on Israel's border, severe economic difficulties, and "mass immigration" that strained the country's resources creating dysfunction and "disorganization" in the new Israeli government. He also said In some cases the Yemenites' religious studies were restricted and their traditional appearance altered to remake them into modern, secular Israelis. <ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/02/world/the-babies-from-yemen-an-enduring-mystery.html?pagewanted=all The Babies From Yemen: An Enduring Mystery</ref>
Dov Levitan, a scholar on Yemenite immigration at [[Bar-Ilan University]], said he found "no evidence of an organized [[conspiracy]]" to kidnap "Yemenite children for adoption" and he attributes the disappearances to negligence, the daily skirmishes on Israel's border, severe economic difficulties, and "mass immigration" that strained the country's resources creating dysfunction and "disorganization" in the new Israeli government.<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/02/world/the-babies-from-yemen-an-enduring-mystery.html?pagewanted=all The Babies From Yemen: An Enduring Mystery</ref>


===Bene Israel controversy===
===Indian ancestry===
⚫
Authorities in Israel have been accused of racism in relation to Jews of Indian ancestry (called [[Bene Israel]]).<ref>Abramov, S. Zalman, ''Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State'', Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277</ref><ref>Smooha, Sammy, ''Israel: pluralism and conflict'', University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401</ref> One instance of alleged racism was the 1962 ruling by the Chief Rabbi of Israel that reportedly discouraged marriage between Indian Jews and Jews of European descent.<ref>Abramov, S. Zalman, ''Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State'', Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277</ref><ref>Smooha, Sammy, ''Israel: pluralism and conflict'', University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401</ref>


However, instance of alleged discrimination may actually be related to the fact that some religious authorities believe that the [[Bene Israel]] are not fully Jewish because of inter-marriage during their long separation.<ref>http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/conversion.htm</ref>
⚫
Some religious authorities claim that the [[Bene Israel]] are not accepted by all Israelis as all being Jews,<ref>http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/conversion.htm</ref> as many have been assimilated. Some have charged racism at the 1962 ruling by the Chief Rabbi of Israel that allegedly discouraged marriage between Indian Jews and Jews of European descent.<ref>Abramov, S. Zalman, ''Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State'', Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277</ref><ref>Smooha, Sammy, ''Israel: pluralism and conflict'', University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401</ref>


===Ethiopians===
===Ethiopian ancestry===
Israeli society, particularly the [[Ashkenazi]] majority, has been accused of racism against blacks of Ethiopian origin ([[Beta Israel]]).<ref>Kemp, Adriana, ''Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges'', Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155</ref> Racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting black Ethiopian Jews to Israel under the [[Law of return]].<ref>Rebhun, Uzi, '' Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns'', UPNE, 2004, p. 140</ref>


There was debate whether or not Falasha Jews' ([[Beta Israel]]) were genuinely Jewish,<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784774</ref> as they might have have intermarried with local non-Jewish Ethiopians during the long years of separation. There have been claims that Israelis among the [[Ashkenazi]] population have discriminated against Ethiopian Jews.<ref>Kemp, Adriana, ''Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges'', Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155</ref> Racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting black Ethiopian Jews ([[Beta Israel]]) to Israel under the [[Law of return]].<ref>Rebhun, Uzi, '' Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns'', UPNE, 2004, p. 140</ref>
However, alleged discrimination may have had religious motivations, since there was debate whether or not Falasha Jews' ([[Beta Israel]]) were genuinely Jewish,<ref>http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784774</ref> as they might have have intermarried with local non-Jewish Ethiopians during the long years of separation. There have been claims that Israelis among the [[Ashkenazi]] population have discriminated against Ethiopian Jews.<ref>Kemp, Adriana, ''Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges'', Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155</ref>


Racism was alleged in a situation where school children of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into schools in the town of [[Petah Tikva]]. An Israeli government official said "for years, racism has developed here [Petah Tikvah] undeterred".<ref>"Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim", Jerusalem Post, 31 Aug 2009. http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392</ref> Anti-Zionist Gideon Levy<ref>http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=382&PID=471&IID=1757</ref> has elaborated on the case in great length.<ref>"Ethiopian students affair shows prevalent racism in Israel", 3 Sep 2009, Haaretz.com, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/ethiopian-students-affair-shows-prevalent-racism-in-israel-1.8578</ref>
Racism was alleged in a situation where school children of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into schools in the town of [[Petah Tikva]]. An Israeli government official said "for years, racism has developed here [Petah Tikvah] undeterred".<ref>"Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim", Jerusalem Post, 31 Aug 2009. http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392</ref> Anti-Zionist Gideon Levy<ref>http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=382&PID=471&IID=1757</ref> has elaborated on the case in great length.<ref>"Ethiopian students affair shows prevalent racism in Israel", 3 Sep 2009, Haaretz.com, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/ethiopian-students-affair-shows-prevalent-racism-in-israel-1.8578</ref>

Revision as of 14:57, 15 August 2010

Racism has been documented in Israel, directed at Arabs, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews (such as Jews from Yemen, North Africa, or the Middle East) or Ethiopian-Israelis, as well as racism by Israeli-Arabs. Racism in Israel has been reported by organizations such as Amnesty International, the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), and the United States Department of State. Instances of racism have been observed in the education system and media.

However, author Raphael Israeli has observed a trend to brand Israel as racist: in a chapter called: Anti-Semitism under the Guise of Anti-Zionism and anti-Israelism the author elaborates on the trend to "nazify" Israel, to call it "racist" as a bigoted campaign against Israel being seen as a 'Jew' among states.[1] The singling out of Israel has been criticized[2], more noticeably, protested at the UN by Western nations[3][4], which has been branded to be a form of racism in itself.[5]

Directed at Arabs

See also Israeli anti-arabism

Polls

The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that racism in the country was increasing.[6] One analysis of the report summarized it: "Over two-thirds Israeli teen believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March of 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes."[7] The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.[8], However the Jerusalem Post explained that, suffering from violence by many Israeli Arabs[9], Israelis are geuninely worried, they are not racists.[10]

Israeli Media and Arabs

Writers such as David Hirsi & Ayala Emmet, have criticized the Israeli media for anti-Arab prejudice.[11][12] The Israeli media has also been described as racist in its portrayals of Arabs and Palestinians[13] by critics of Zionism.[13]

Education system

Activist Daniel Bar-Tal[14] has described his opinion that Israel's education system as biased or prejudiced against Arabs[15]

Zionism

Many anti-zionist critics of Israel equate Zionism (the political movement to re-create the state of Israel[16]) with racism, or describe zionism as racist or discriminatory.[17][18][19][20]

However, it has been explained in JVL that Zionism does not discriminate against anyone. "Israel's open and democratic character, and its scrupulous protection of the religious and political rights of Christians and Muslims, rebut the charge of exclusivity. Moreover, anyone — Jew or non-Jew, Israeli, American, or Saudi, black, white, yellow or purple — can be a Zionist." Israel's population entails all colors, races equal under the law.[21] Regarding the racism of branding (Multi-racial,multi-religious[22]) Israel as racist, many have objected, including the organization Peacenow which decries about singling out Israel, when practically every nation in the world has some kind of similar favoritism in its immigration policy: ethnic Germans, for example who have lived, even for generations outside Germany, have a "right of return" to Germany; English-speaking people are favored to enter England, and in the Netherlands, only those ethnically Dutch are able to become Dutch citizens, etc. As for the representation of Judaism in the public square: one glance at the flags of Norway, Sweden, or Denmark demonstrates that many liberal countries proclaim themselves officially and openly as "Christian." Britain has crosses in its flag. Saudi Arabia has a crescent on its flag, (many Arab nations are called Arab Republic) and is very (totalitarian) Islamic; so is the Islamic Republic of Iran. Pakistan was born out of the idea to be a home specifically for (Indian) Muslims, just as Israel came about to be a home for Jews (and saving from persecution). Many countries, do even greater promotion of some kind of religion: Christianity, Islam or Buddhism, like in: Burma, Thailand. It's completely false to state that Israel is the only country "based on" religion or ethnicity. Christmas is on the official calendar of most Christian countries, and in Poland & in Ireland on many subjects, the Church has the final word. If Israel is racist, so are the above (and other) nations mentioned. Moreover, given this widespread preference for ethnicities and religions other than Judaism around the globe, it is hard for many Jews to find a home outside of Israel. and concludes: "Someone who proclaims Israel to be basically racist is essentially just saying that they think the ethnic and religious identity of Jews doesn't matter - while the ethnic and religious identity of Germans, Anglicans, Indian Muslims, etc. all do matter. And that is anti-semitism: the racist hatred of or contempt for Jews."[23][24] To single out Jewish self-determination for condemnation is itself a form of racism, clarifies the JVL.[21]

Law of return controversy

See also: Law of return § Controversy

One of the main criticisms levied at Zionism is Israel's Law of return, described as racist by some critics of Zionism because it discriminates against non-Jews.[25] Such as jus sanguinis law of the right of return which, despite Israel's otherwise restrictive immigration policies, grant (asylum based on general phenomenon of Anti-semitism's persecution) every Jew in the world the right to settle in Israel. This is agitating[original research?] for the many Palestinian refugees, who claim they used to live in the territory that is modern Israel, but are denied their wish to return, which they deem a right.[26] Supporters of the law maintain that allowing a hostile majority that were adversaries in a war for Israel's independence to return would be tantamount to the political, demographic destruction of the Jewish character of Israel, and would endanger the Jewish population living there.[27] This is not unique to the Israeli side. In Egypt a court in Cairo has upheld a ruling urging the government to consider stripping of their citizenship Egyptian men who are married to Israeli women.[28]

The Article 11 of the UNGA Resolution 194, upon which the Palestinian refugees usually base their claim of a "right of return," states that it "[r]esolves that the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property..." without naming Israel and specifying either Palestinian or Jewish refugees. This is in contrast to the process in some Arab states, which the Jewish Virtual Library describes as: almost impossible to become a naturalized citizen in many Arab states (and excluding Jews from their own law of return" in 1954), In israel, however, non-Jews are eligible to become Israeli citizens under naturalization procedures similar to those in other countries.[citation needed] Arab states define citizenship strictly by native parentage.[21]

Marriage benefits

Israel's Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law has been described as discriminatory against Arabs because it effectively makes it difficult for Arab citizens of Israel from marrying with the same privileges as Jewish citizens.[29][30] The law has been condemned by Amnesty International as "racial discrimination".[31]

Incidents

The Mossawa Advocacy Center for Arab Citizens in Israel reported a tenfold increase in racist incidents against Arabs in 2008. Jerusalem reported the highest number of incidents. The report blames Israeli leaders for the violence, saying "These attacks are not the hand of fate, but a direct result of incitement against the Arab citizens of this country by religious, public, and elected officials."[32]

During the latter part of the Arab riots in October 2000 events, thousands of Jewish Israelis counter-rioted in Nazareth and Tel Aviv, throwing stones at Arabs, destroying Arab property, and chanting "death to Arabs".[33] Haaretz editorialized that that year's "Yom Kippur will be infamous for the violent, racist outburst by Jews against Arabs within Israel".[34]

Many Israeli Jews oppose mixed relationships, particularly relationships between Jewish women and Arab men. largely due to: religious differences and for security worries. A 2007 opinion survey found that more than half of Israeli Jews believed intermarriage is equivalent to "national treason". A group of 35 Jewish men, known as "Fire for Judaism", in Pisgat Ze'ev have started patrolling the town in an effort to stop Jewish women from dating Arab men. The municipality of Petah Tikva has also announced an initiative to prevent interracial relationships, providing a telephone hotline for friends and family to inform on Jewish girls who date Arab men, as well as psychologists to provide counselling. The town of Kiryat Gat launched a school program in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.[35][36]

Racism by Israeli-Arabs

Towards Jews

Polls

In a 2009 PEW poll showing 90% of the middle east view Jews unfavorably. Overwhelmingly negative attitudes toward Jews in Arab and Islamic countries. with more than 90% of Egyptians, Jordanians, Lebanese and Palestinians expressing unfavorable views toward Jews. However, "only" 35 percent of Israeli Arabs said they disliked Jews. [37][38]

Data from a 2007 Poll shows that 76% Of Israeli Arabs call Zionism racist, 48% Support Hezbollah's Attacks On Israel, 28% Deny Holocaust. [39]

In 2009, professor of University of Haifa's poll showed Holocaust denial widespread among Israeli Arabs and showed it is on the rise.[40] 40 Percent of Israel's Arab Citizens Deny Holocaust, Only 41 percent of the Arab citizens of Israel recognize Israel's right to exist as a Jewish and as a democratic state, down from 65.6 percent from a previous poll.[41] Ynet elaborates this in an article named "Who is the real fascist?" That Israeli Arabs, and their groups like "Adala" (also known for calling Israelis' fears as racism), etc. know when to remind the Holocaust when trying to exaggerate lost battles with Israel's war on terror, comparing Arabs' failure to "victims of the Holocaust."[42]

Attacks

Among the brazen attacks (amid a worrisome involvement of Israeli Arabs in terrorist attacks directed against Israeli Jews[clarification needed] [9][43]) are the 2008 bulldozer attacks [44], described by a writer:"He took the bulldozer, with which he fed his own wife and family, and used it to crush other families to death, simply for being Israeli Jews."[45] On July 7, 2008 a writer in Israel's lefty paper Haaretz asks: "If justifying the murder of innocents because they belong to a certain hated group is not abject racism, I'd like to know what is."[46]

One important Arab anti-Jewish riots was in Oct 2008, on Yom Kippur, when an Arab driver drove dangerously in Jewish neighbourhoods causing clashes, incited by calls from the mosque [47], Arabs ran riot through Jewish areas of the city. "Calling "Death to the Jews" and Allah hu akbar ("Allah is great"), the rioters vandalized hundreds of Jewish-owned shops and vehicles, and threw rocks at people on their way to or from Yom Kippur prayers."[48][49]

During the course of monitoring elections in 2009, a Member of the Knesset (MK) replaced another Jewish election monitor at the Israeli-Arab town of Umm El-Fahm, who was prevented by police from entering the city because of threats by local Arabs on his life. as soon as the MK began to perform his duties, an Israeli-Arab mob rioted outside attacking the guards and shouts of “Death to the Jews!” could be heard.[50]

Leadership

Journalist Ben-Meir wrote: "What's racist is denying the Jewish people a state of their own. Certain Arab Knesset members talk incessantly about the Palestinian people's rights, including their own state. But in the same breath they refuse to acknowledge Israel as the state of the Jewish people and deny the very existence of a Jewish people as a nation with national rights." he goes on to say that those deserving racist epithet are such Arab Member of Knesset (MK), who attended the conference of hate in Geneva and called themselves "victims of Israel's racist apartheid" while serving as a member of the Israeli parliament.[51] Such prominant Arab leaders as Arab member of Knesset A. Tibi was suggested, by some as being racist.[52]


The head of the Islamic movement in Israel's Northern Branch, was charged with incitement to racism and to violence. During legal proceedings, the prosecution said that Sheikh Raed Salah made his inflammatory remarks "with the objective of inciting racism."[53][54] he also accused Jews of using children's blood to bake bread.[55] In Umm el-Fahm – the heartland of the Islamic Movement’s Northern Branch, Salah is a hero, “Salah is our leader, not just here, but for all the Arabs in Israel.” explained an Arab resident. His movement is a faction of the regional Muslim Brotherhood.[56]

Towards Blacks

The groups of black people living in the Negev and as refugees in Gaza today, are the descendants of slaves of the Bedouin.[citation needed] Researchers explore blacks' history among local Arabs, Negev Bedouins owned slaves, many of whom were of African origin. slaves used to be branded like animals, there were no papers concerning ownership or origins.[citation needed] When Israel was created in 1948 some of these people of African origin became refugees in Gaza, while others remained in the Negev and became Israeli citizens.[citation needed] The deragetory racist terminology of ethnicity and identity used by local Arab has been explored, and it "reveals a consciousness of difference and rejection of the label abed or slave/black person."[57] The issue of the origins, identity and terminology used to describe people of African origin is highly sensitive.[citation needed] White local Arabs' persisting in calling people of African origin 'abed, perpetuates discrimination.[citation needed] The African Palestinians living in Jerusalem told a writer that they would fight with anybody who referred to them as 'abed'.[58]

An Arab Bus driver was charged with racism as he said to an Ethiopian: "Drink milk and you'll be white."[59]

In August 2010, an Israeli-Arab, Elias Abuelazam has been accused of racist attacks against blacks - African-Americans.[60]

Directed at Jewish groups

Israelis of European or German ancestry (Ashkenazi) are described as viewing themselves as superior to Israelis of other ancestries, and maintaining an elite position in Israel society,[61][62] and some decribe the attitudes of Ashkenazi as racist or racism.[63]

However, Some academic sources identify discrimination aimed at Jewish groups as class-based, not race-based.[citation needed] For example, the differnces between (Mizrahi) Sephardic Jews (N. Africans, Middle Easterners, Yemenites, etc.) are referred to as Adatiyut [64][65][66][67] community-differences (resulting also in some traditional customary gaps).[68]

Some sources claim that reports of inter-Jewish discrimination in Israel arise from propaganda published by Arab sources which ignores the normality and harmony between the communities.[69][70]

Sephardim

Ashkenazi Jews in Israel, particularly of the Orthodox movement, have been alleged to discrimate against Sephardi Jews and view them inferior.[71] However, some claim that this discrimination is class-based, not race-based.[citation needed]

Examples of such attitudes have been reported in the school system, where Sephardi students are sometimes excluded, or are segregated within the school building.[72][73]

Mizrahi

Israeli society has been described as harboring racist views towards persons of Middle Eastern and North African descent, knows as Mizrahi Jews (or "oriental Jews").[74]

Some claim that the education system discriminates against Jewish minorities from North Africa and the Middle East, and one source suggests that "ethnic prejudice in Israel is a relatively general phenomenon, not limited to the schooling process".[75]

Yemenite babies disappearance

Israeli Jews of European descent were accused of collaborating in the disappearance of babies of Yemeni Jews and racist motives were alleged. In 1950s, the Israeli government as well as other organizations in Israel were accused of kidnapping of between 2,400 and 10,000 children from their recently arrived Yemeni families. In most instances, the parents claim that they were told their children were ill and required hospitalization. Upon later visiting the hospital, it is claimed that the parents were told that their children had died though no bodies were presented or graves which have later proven to be empty in many cases were shown to the parents.[76][77][78]

Dov Levitan, a scholar on Yemenite immigration at Bar-Ilan University, said he found "no evidence of an organized conspiracy" to kidnap "Yemenite children for adoption" and he attributes the disappearances to negligence, the daily skirmishes on Israel's border, severe economic difficulties, and "mass immigration" that strained the country's resources creating dysfunction and "disorganization" in the new Israeli government.[79]

Indian ancestry

Authorities in Israel have been accused of racism in relation to Jews of Indian ancestry (called Bene Israel).[80][81] One instance of alleged racism was the 1962 ruling by the Chief Rabbi of Israel that reportedly discouraged marriage between Indian Jews and Jews of European descent.[82][83]

However, instance of alleged discrimination may actually be related to the fact that some religious authorities believe that the Bene Israel are not fully Jewish because of inter-marriage during their long separation.[84]

Ethiopian ancestry

Israeli society, particularly the Ashkenazi majority, has been accused of racism against blacks of Ethiopian origin (Beta Israel).[85] Racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting black Ethiopian Jews to Israel under the Law of return.[86]

However, alleged discrimination may have had religious motivations, since there was debate whether or not Falasha Jews' (Beta Israel) were genuinely Jewish,[87] as they might have have intermarried with local non-Jewish Ethiopians during the long years of separation. There have been claims that Israelis among the Ashkenazi population have discriminated against Ethiopian Jews.[88]

Racism was alleged in a situation where school children of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into schools in the town of Petah Tikva. An Israeli government official said "for years, racism has developed here [Petah Tikvah] undeterred".[89] Anti-Zionist Gideon Levy[90] has elaborated on the case in great length.[91]

Anti-racism efforts

According to the State Department, "Israel has one of the broadest anti-discrimination laws of any country. "The law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status, or sexual orientation. The law also prohibits discrimination by both government and nongovernment entities on the basis of race, religion, political beliefs, and age."[21]

The Anti Defamation League states: "There is no Israeli ideology, policy or plan to segregate, persecute or mistreat its Israeli Arab citizens, nor Palestinian Arabs," it goes on in saying that Israel is a democracy which encourages vibrant debate, which has a flourishing free press and which shares with other liberal democracies a core value: the equality of all its citizens before the law.[92]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Muslim anti-Semitism in Christian Europe: elemental and residual anti-semitism By Raphael Israeli, p. 151
  2. ^ http://www.cjpac.ca/news/read/50
  3. ^ http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article6136165.ece
  4. ^ http://www.forbes.com/2009/02/22/obama-israel-holocaust-durban-opinions-contributors_united_nations.html
  5. ^ http://points.stand4facts.org/bin/index.cgi?ChapterID=2
  6. ^ "Israeli anti-Arab racism 'rises'", BBC, 10 Dec 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7136068.stm
  7. ^ Synopsis of the report, from "Racism in Israel on the rise", Aviram Zino, Ynet News, 12 Aug 2007, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3480345,00.html
  8. ^ "Reflections on October 2000 - Eight years later, discrimination and racism against Israel's Arab citizens have only increased" - news release from ACRI, http://www.acri.org.il/eng/story.aspx?id=556
  9. ^ a b http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2004/1/2003%20Terrorism%20Review
  10. ^ http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=49178
  11. ^ Hirst, David, The gun and the olive branch: the roots of violence in the Middle East, Nation Books, 2003, p. 91
  12. ^ Emmet, Ayala H., Our sisters' promised land: women, politics, and Israeli-Palestinian coexistence, University of Michigan Press, 2003, p 68
  13. ^ a b pp 108-109 Cite error: The named reference "nahla" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  14. ^ Anti Zionist and controversial http://isracampus.org.il/third%20level%20pages/Editorial%20-%20Alon%20Ben%20Shaul%20-%20Daniel%20Bar-Tal.htm describerd by some as extremist http://www.isracampus.org.il/third%20level%20pages/Israeli%20extremism%20-%20Dershowitz%20vs%20Tenured%20Extremists.htm
  15. ^ Bar-Tal, Daniel, "The Arab Image in Hebrew School Textbooks", in Islamophobia and anti-Semitism, Hillel Schenker, Abu Zayyad Ziad, Ziad Abu Zayyad (Eds), Markus Wiener Publishers, 2006, pp 135-152
  16. ^ the national liberation movement of the Jewish people, which holds that Jews, like any other nation, are entitled to a homeland http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf1.html#e
  17. ^ See United Nations Resolution 3379, stating in its conclusion that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination", passed in November 1975
  18. ^ Zionism, imperialism, and race, Abdul Wahhab Kayyali, ʻAbd al-Wahhāb Kayyālī (Eds), Croom Helm, 1979
  19. ^ Gerson, Allan, "The United Nations and Racism: the Case of Zionism and Racism", in Israel Yearbook on Human Rights 1987, Volume 17; Volume 1987, Yoram Dinstein, Mala Tabory (Eds), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988, p 68
  20. ^ Hadawi, Sami, Bitter harvest: a modern history of Palestine, Interlink Books, 1991, p 183
  21. ^ a b c d http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Human_Rights/human_rts_in_Israel.html
  22. ^ http://www.myjewishlearning.com/israel/Contemporary_Life/Society_and_Religious_Issues.shtml
  23. ^ http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/ngo_apartheid_state_campaign_deliberately_immoral_or_intellectually_lazy_
  24. ^ http://www.chicagopeacenow.org/rr-26.html
  25. ^ Matas, David, Aftershock: anti-zionism and anti-semitism,Dundurn Press Ltd., 2005, p 56-59
  26. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3629923.stm
  27. ^ Our Jerusalem.com
  28. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/africa/10247437.stm
  29. ^ Amnesty International, The Amnesty International report, Amnesty International Publications, 2005, p. 142
  30. ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2008, Seven Stories Press, 2008, p. 487
  31. ^ "Israel/Occupied Territories: High Court decision institutionalizes racial discrimination", Amnesty International news release, 16 May 2006, http://www.amnestyusa.org/document.php?lang=e&id=ENGMDE150422006
  32. ^ "Racist attacks against Arabs increase tenfold - report". Y-Net News. 2009-03-21.
  33. ^ "The Or Inquiry - Summary of Events". Haaretz. 2000-09-12. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
  34. ^ "Anti-Arab riots spark Israeli soulsearching". BBC. 2000-10-11. Retrieved 2006-04-08.
  35. ^ "'Protecting' Jewish girls from Arabs". The Jerusalem Post. 2009-09-18.
  36. ^ Cook, Jonathan. "Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs". The National.
  37. ^ http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/main/showNews/id/8958
  38. ^ http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1486/survey-muslim-nations-middle-east-political-leaders-hamas-hezbollah
  39. ^ http://www.zoa.org/sitedocuments/pressrelease_view.asp?pressreleaseID=407
  40. ^ http://newmedia-eng.haifa.ac.il/index.php?m=200905&paged=2
  41. ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/131404
  42. ^ http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3500040,00.html
  43. ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/126817
  44. ^ http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3571614,00.html
  45. ^ http://www.wnd.com/index.php?pageId=68770
  46. ^ Haaretz, Jul 7, 2008 "Fear of calling a terrorist a terrorist"
  47. ^ http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/10/12/israel.violence/index.html
  48. ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/127921
  49. ^ http://www.kadmiel.com/northernborderyomkippur/
  50. ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/129872
  51. ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1081038.html
  52. ^ http://www.israelnationalnews.com/Articles/Article.aspx/6146
  53. ^ http://www.haaretz.com/news/islamic-movement-head-charged-with-incitement-to-racism-violence-1.238209
  54. ^ http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3500219,00.html
  55. ^ http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1014706.htm
  56. ^ http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=179827
  57. ^ http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/brill/afas/2007/00000006/00000003/art00006?crawler=true
  58. ^ Hidden history, secret present: The origins and status of African Palestinians by Dr. Susan Beckerleg [1] Reflections on Arab-led slavery of Africans, by K. K. Prah, 2005, p. 198 [2], Tinabantu: Centre for Advanced Studies of African Society, 2002, p. 17 [3]
  59. ^ http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3673580,00.html
  60. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/aug/13/israeli-elias-abuelazam-accused-us-racist-murders
  61. ^ Torstrick, Rebecca L., The limits of coexistence: identity politics in Israel, University of Michigan Press, 2000, p 32
  62. ^ Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009, p 54-56
  63. ^ Ruttenberg, Danya, Yentl's revenge: the next wave of Jewish feminism, p 178
  64. ^ http://www.allbookstores.com/Jews_Oriental_p4sd.html
  65. ^ http://soc.haifa.ac.il/~s.smooha/download/Mass_Immigrations_to_Israel.pdf
  66. ^ http://my.mli.org.il/Mli_Pdf/Graduate/SephardicMizrahiArab-JewsReflections.pdf
  67. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=jpoKj4IH5qQC&pg=PA250
  68. ^ [4]
  69. ^ Jewish spectator School of the Jewish Woman, New York, N.Y., 1981, p. 24
  70. ^ American Jewish Congress 1986, Congress monthly, Volumes 53-54, p. 34
  71. ^
  72. ^ Ashkenazi Against Sephardi Racism Lives, by Shelomo Alfassa "The haredim were found guilty by the Israeli High Court of Justice of racism. Evidence of their crime can easily be seen by the fact that schools were constructed with separate entrances and separate classrooms for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews. The Ashkenazi parents say they need to keep the classrooms segregated because the families of the Sephardi girls "aren't religious enough."
  73. ^ Sephardim, Ashkenazim, and Ultra-Orthodox Racism in Israel, by David Shasha
  74. ^
    • Smooha, Sammy, "Jewish Ethnicity in Israel: Symbolic or Real?", in Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns, Uzi Rebhun (Ed.), UPNE, 2004, p 60-74
    • Khazzoom, Loolwa, The flying camel: essays on identity by women of North African and Middle Eastern Jewish heritage, Seal Press, 2003, p 69
    • Sharoni, Simona, "Feminist Reflections on the Interplay of Sexism and Racism in Israel", in Challenging racism and sexism: alternatives to genetic explanations, Ethel Tobach, Betty Rosoff (Eds), Feminist Press, 1994, p 309-331
    • Hanieh, Adam, "The Reality Behind Israeli Socialism", in The Palestinian Struggle, Zionism and Anti-Semitism, Sean Malloy, Doug Lorimer, Doug Lorimer (Eds), Resistance Books, 2002, p 21-22
    • Lefkowitz, Daniel, Words and stones: the politics of language and identity in Israel, p 15
    • Thomas, Amelia, Israel and the Palestinian Territories, p 43
    • Zohar, Zion, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry: from the Golden Age of Spain to modern times, p 324
    • Medding, Peter Y. Sephardic Jewry and Mizrahi Jews, p 81
  75. ^ Yuchtman-Yaar, Ephraim, "Ethnic Inequality in Israeli Schools and Sports: An Expectation-States Approach", in The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 85, No. 3 (Nov., 1979), pp. 576-590, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778584
  76. ^ Solving the Mystery of Missing Yemeni Babies, ABC World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Forrest Sawyer and Linda Patillo Reporting, August 25, 1997]
  77. ^ Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009
  78. ^ See also, regarding media and Yemeni Jews: Madmoni-Gerber, Shoshana, Israeli media and the framing of internal conflict: the Yemenite babies affair, Macmillan, 2009
  79. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/1997/09/02/world/the-babies-from-yemen-an-enduring-mystery.html?pagewanted=all The Babies From Yemen: An Enduring Mystery
  80. ^ Abramov, S. Zalman, Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277
  81. ^ Smooha, Sammy, Israel: pluralism and conflict, University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401
  82. ^ Abramov, S. Zalman, Perpetual dilemma: Jewish religion in the Jewish State, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1976, p. 277
  83. ^ Smooha, Sammy, Israel: pluralism and conflict, University of California Press, 1978, p. 400-401
  84. ^ http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/conversion.htm
  85. ^ Kemp, Adriana, Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges, Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155
  86. ^ Rebhun, Uzi, Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns, UPNE, 2004, p. 140
  87. ^ http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784774
  88. ^ Kemp, Adriana, Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges, Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p 155
  89. ^ "Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim", Jerusalem Post, 31 Aug 2009. http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392
  90. ^ http://www.jcpa.org/JCPA/Templates/ShowPage.asp?DBID=1&LNGID=1&TMID=111&FID=382&PID=471&IID=1757
  91. ^ "Ethiopian students affair shows prevalent racism in Israel", 3 Sep 2009, Haaretz.com, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/opinion/ethiopian-students-affair-shows-prevalent-racism-in-israel-1.8578
  92. ^ http://www.adl.org/main_Israel/Divestment_02_17_05.htm
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