Battle of Actium

Battle of Actium
Part of The Final War of the Roman Republic
The battle of Actium, by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
Date 2 September 31 BC Location Ionian sea, near the Roman colony of Actium, Greece Result Decisive Octavian victory; Mark Antony lost his fleet, his army deserted in large numbers; Octavian had sole and uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" and became "Augustus Caesar", the "first citizen" of Rome.
Belligerents
Octavian's supporters and forces	Ptolemaic Egypt, Mark Antony's supporters
Commanders and leaders
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa	Mark Antony
Strength
250 warships, mostly small liburnian vessels and Hexeres with 16,000 Legionary Marines and 3,000 archers.	230 warships, mostly quinqueremes with some larger Deceres, 30/50 Transports and 60 Egyptian warships. 2,000 Archers and 20,000 Legionary Marines.
Casualties and losses
About 2,500 killed	Over 5,000 killed; 200 ships sunk/captured

The Battle of Actium was the decisive confrontation of the Final War of the Roman Republic. It was fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC, on the Ionian Sea near the Roman colony of Actium in Greece. Octavian's fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony's fleet was supported by the ships of his beloved, Queen Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt.

Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. To that end, he adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen") and as a result of the victory was awarded the title of Augustus by the Roman Senate. As Augustus, he would retain the trappings of a restored Republican leader; however, historians generally view this consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.

Prelude

The alliance commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, renewed for a five-year term in 38 BC, broke down when Octavian came to perceive Caesarion, the natural son of Julius Caesar and of the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra, as a major threat to his power. That happened when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the Triumvirate, abandoned his wife (Octavian's sister Octavia Minor) and moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, thus becoming de facto stepfather to Caesarion. Such a love affair was doomed to become a political scandal. Antony was inevitably perceived (by Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate) as playing the role of the leader of a separatist movement not only in Egypt, but also one that threatened to break the unity of the Roman Republic.

Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, the loyalty of his legions had been initially boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which the then seventeen-year-old Octavian had been officially adopted as the only son of the great Roman general and also established as the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Mark Antony had been the main and most successful top officer in Julius Caesar's army (magister equitum) and, thanks to his military record, could claim a substantial share of the political support of the Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Mark Antony had fought against their common enemies in the civil war that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar.

After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Mark Antony started to act independently, eventually raising the suspicion that he was vying to become the sole master of Rome. When he openly left Octavian's sister, Octavia Minor, and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, he led many Roman politicians to believe that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and of other eastern kingdoms, while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East. As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Julius Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him at all. In fact, Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated to power Caesarion, then thirteen years of age, in 34 BC, giving him the vague but alarming title of "King of the Kings" (Donations of Alexandria). Being a son of Julius Caesar, such an entitlement was obviously felt as a threat to the Roman republican traditions. In fact, according to a widespread belief, Mark Antony had once offered the crown to Julius Caesar. Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome, asserting that he was seeking to establish a personal monarchy over the entire Roman Empire in the behalf of Caesarion, completely circumventing the Roman Senate. It was also said that Antony intended to move the capital of the empire to Alexandria.

As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that he might be regarded by them as their champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner. The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been continually accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius, in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority for being in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; that his connection with Cleopatra and the acknowledgment of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Julius Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself.

During 32 BC, a third of the Senate and both consuls allied with Antony. The consuls of that year had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet; but G. Sosius on 1 January made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his acta had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply of such a nature that the consuls both left Rome to join Antony; and Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, came at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion. After staying a time with his allies at Samos, Antony removed to Athens. His land forces which had been in Armenia were brought down to the coast of Asia, and embarked under L. Canidius Crassus.

Octavian was not behindhand in preparations. Indeed, military operations began in 31 BC, when Octavian's general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. But, by the publication of Antony's will, which had been put into his hands by the traitor Plancus, and by carefully letting it be known at Rome what preparations were going on at Samos, and how entirely Antony was acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained his deposition from the consulship of 31, for which he was designated, and a vote for a proclamation of war against Cleopatra, well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named. In doing this, the Senate issued a war declaration and deprived Antony of any legal authority.

The battle

Order of battle

Antony meant to anticipate an attack by a descent upon Italy towards the end of 32, and went as far as Corcyra. But finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, he retired to overwinter at Patrae, while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf, and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was also protected by a tower and a body of troops.

Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony having been scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the final struggle next year. The early months passed without notable event, beyond some successes of Agrippa on the coasts of Greece, meant to divert Antony's attention. It was not until the latter part of August that troops were brought by land into the neighbourhood of Antony's camp on the north side of the strait. Still Antony could not be tempted out. It would take some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. But during these months not only was Agrippa continuing his descent upon Greek towns and coasts, but in various cavalry skirmishes, Octavian had so far prevailed that Antony abandoned the north side of the strait and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now earnestly advised that garrisons should be put into strong towns, and that the main fleet should return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony; and it appears that this movement was really resolved upon.

Octavian learnt of this and debated on how to prevent it, originally of a mind to let Anthony sail and then attack him he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle. On the first day of September, he issued an address to his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits, and the ships moving into line remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships. Then for fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack.

Order of battle

The two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium, on the morning of 2 September 31 BC. Antony's fleet numbered 500, of which were 230 large wargalleys furnished with towers full of armed men. He led these through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian had about 250 warships. Octavian's fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius commanding the centre and Marcus Lurius commanding from the right. Titus Statilius Taurus commanded Octavian's armies, who observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits. Mark Antony and Gellius Publicola commanded the right wing of the Antonian fleet, while Marcus Octavius and Marcus Insteius commanded the centre, with Cleopatra's squadron positioned behind them. Gaius Sosius launched the initial attack from the left wing of the fleet, while Antony's chief lieutenant Publius Canidius Crassus was in command of the triumvir's land forces.

Combat

The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. The majority of Mark Antony's warships were quinqueremes, huge galleys with massive rams, that could weigh up to three hundred tons. Antony's ships were often furnished with grappling irons, which were effective if hurled successfully; but, if they failed, were apt to damage the ship, or to cause so much delay as to expose the men on board to the darts from the smaller vessel. The bows of the galleys were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult.

Unfortunately for Antony, many of his ships were undermanned; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. Making the best of the situation, he burned those ships he could no longer man, while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the quinqueremes had been designed failed.

Ballistae on a Roman ship.

Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller, fully manned Liburnian vessels, armed with better-trained, fresher crews. Octavian's ships were generally smaller, but more manageable in the heavy surf, capable of reversing their course on short notice and returning to the charge or, after pouring in a volley of darts on some huge adversary, able to retreat out of shot with speed. They were lighter and could out-maneuver the quinqueremes, where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of arrows and catapult-launched stones, which were large enough to decapitate a man.

Prior to the battle, one of Mark Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, had defected to Octavian, bringing with him Mark Antony's battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Cleopatra, in the rear, could not bear the suspense, and in an agony of anxiety, gave the signal for retreat. Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction, and the Egyptian ships were soon hurrying out of sight.

Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and that all was lost, followed the flying squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails were seen unfurling, and towers and other heavy fighting gear going by the board. Yet some still fought on; and it was not until long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, that the work was done. Mark Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those that remained left behind, however, were captured or sunk by Octavian's forces.

One version of the battle suggests that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To try to turn this to his advantage, Antony gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach Antony's, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so Cleopatra and he stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually, Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships which up until now were tightly arranged. He sent Gaius Sosius down to the south to spread the remaining ships out to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force.

With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels, and had to spend the whole night on board. Next day, such of the land army as had not escaped to their own lands submitted or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, and Antony's camp was occupied. It was all over, and the Empire had a single master.

Aftermath

The political consequences of this battle were far-reaching. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. After Mark Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to that of Octavian, deserted in large numbers. Antony, though he had not laid down his imperium, was a fugitive and a rebel, without that shadow of a legal position which the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet were in pursuit of him; but Octavian himself visited Greece and Asia, and spent the winter at Samos; though he was obliged to go for a short time to Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land.

At Samos, Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favour of her sons. The queen was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph. Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius, and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. C. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium; and Octavian himself landed at Pelusium, with the connivance it was believed of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus, and returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium.

Despite a victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Mark Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. The slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Mark Antony then tried to flee from the battle, and as a result of a communication breakdown, came to believe that Cleopatra had been captured, and hence committed suicide. Failing to escape on board a ship, he stabbed himself; and, as he did not die at once, insisted on being taken to the mausoleum in which Cleopatra was shut up, and there died in her arms. The queen was shortly afterwards brought from this place to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity.

After Mark Antony's death, Cleopatra eluded the vigilance of her guard Epaphroditus and committed suicide, on 12 August 30 BC. In one account, she put an end to her life, as it was believed, by the bite of a snake (an asp) conveyed to her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that year, finally securing his legacy as Julius Caesar's only 'son'.

Thus, Octavian's victory at the Battle of Actium gave him sole and uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" (Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. This victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked the transition of Rome from Republic to Empire. Egypt's final surrender following Cleopatra's death also marks the final demise of both the Hellenistic Age and the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

References

• Military Heritage published a feature about the Battle of Actium, involving Mark Antony, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus aka. Octavian (Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir), and Cleopatra of Egypt (Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666.
• Everitt, Anthony (2006), Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor, New York: Random House, ISBN 1400061288
• Shuckburgh, Evelyn S. A History of Rome to the Battle of Actium. New York: Macmillan and Co, 1917. original publication 1894
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links

• The Actium Project
• The Naval Battle of Actium
• Battle of Actium - The Battle that Determined the Cultural Axis of Europe
• Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 50