Catatonia: Difference between revisions
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* '''[[Stupor]]''' is a motionless, [[apathy|apathetic]] state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]]. [[motor skill|Motor activity]] is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state make little or no eye contact with others and may be mute and rigid. One might remain in one position for a long period of time, and then go directly to another position immediately after the first position. |
* '''[[Stupor]]''' is a motionless, [[apathy|apathetic]] state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external [[stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]]. [[motor skill|Motor activity]] is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state make little or no eye contact with others and may be mute and rigid. One might remain in one position for a long period of time, and then go directly to another position immediately after the first position. |
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* '''Catatonic excitement''' is a state of constant purposeless [[agitation]] and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive, although, as aforementioned, the activity seems to lack purpose. |
* '''Catatonic excitement''' is a state of constant purposeless [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]] and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive, although, as aforementioned, the activity seems to lack purpose. |
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===Catatonia rating scale=== |
===Catatonia rating scale=== |
Revision as of 16:46, 31 October 2010
Catatonia | |
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Specialty | Psychiatry, psychomotor education ![]() |
Catatonia is a syndrome of psychological and motorological disturbances. Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum first described it in 1874: Die Katatonie oder das Spannungirresein[1] (Catatonia or Tension Insanity). In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) it is not recognized as a separate disorder, but is associated with psychiatric conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and other mental disorders, as well as drug abuse or overdose (or both). It may also be seen in many medical disorders including infections (such as encephalitis), autoimmune disorders, focal neurologic lesions (including strokes), metabolic disturbances and abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal.[2][3][4] It can be an adverse reaction to prescribed medication. It bears similarity to conditions such as encephalitis lethargica and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. There are a variety of treatments available; benzodiazepines are a first-line treatment strategy. Electro-convulsive therapy is also sometimes used. There is growing evidence for the effectiveness of NMDA antagonists for benzodiazepine resistant catatonia.[5] Antipsychotics are sometimes employed but require caution as they can worsen symptoms and have serious adverse effects.[6]
Clinical features
Patients with catatonia may experience an extreme loss of motor skills or even constant hyperactive motor activity. Catatonic patients will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli. Patients with catatonic excitement can die of exhaustion if not treated. Patients may also show stereotyped, repetitive movements. They may show specific types of movement such as waxy flexibility, in which they maintain positions after being placed in them by someone else, or gegenhalten (lit. "counterhold"), in which they resist movement in proportion to the force applied by the examiner. They may repeat meaningless phrases or speak only to repeat what the examiner says.
While catatonia is only identified as a form of schizophrenia in present psychiatric classifications, it is increasingly recognized as a syndrome with many faces. It appears as the Kahlbaum syndrome (retarded catatonia), malignant catatonia (neuroleptic malignant syndrome, toxic serotonin syndrome), and excited forms (delirious mania, catatonic excitement, oneirophrenia).[6] It has also been recognized as grafted on to autistic spectrum disorders.[7]
Diagnostic criteria
According to the DSM-IV, the "With catatonic features" specifier can be applied if the clinical picture is dominated by at least two of the following:
- motor immobility as evidenced by catalepsy (including waxy flexibility) or stupor
- excessive motor activity (purposeless, not influenced by external stimuli)
- extreme negativism (motiveless resistance to all instructions or maintenance of a rigid posture against attempts to be moved) or mutism
- peculiarities of voluntary movement as evidenced by posturing, stereotyped movements, prominent mannerisms, or prominent grimacing
- echolalia or echopraxia
Subtypes
- Stupor is a motionless, apathetic state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external stimuli. Motor activity is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state make little or no eye contact with others and may be mute and rigid. One might remain in one position for a long period of time, and then go directly to another position immediately after the first position.
- Catatonic excitement is a state of constant purposeless agitation and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive, although, as aforementioned, the activity seems to lack purpose.
Catatonia rating scale
Fink and Taylor developed a catatonia rating scale to identify the syndrome.[6] A diagnosis is verified by a benzodiazepine or barbiturate test. The diagnosis is validated by the quick response to either benzodiazepines or electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). While proven useful in the past, barbiturates are no longer commonly used in psychiatry; thus the option of either benzodiazepines or ECT.
Treatment
Initial treatment is aimed at providing relief from the catatonic state. Benzodiazepines are the first line of treatment, and high doses are often required. A test dose of 1–2 mg of intramuscular lorazepam will often result in marked improvement within half an hour. In France, zolpidem has also been used in diagnosis, and response may occur within the same time period. Ultimately the underlying cause needs to be treated.[6]
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment for catatonia as well as for most of the underlying causes (e.g. psychosis, mania, depression). Antipsychotics should be used with care as they can worsen catatonia and are the cause of neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a dangerous condition that can mimic catatonia and requires immediate discontinuation of the antipsychotic.[6]
Excessive glutamate activity is believed to be involved in catatonia; when first-line treatment options fail, NMDA antagonists such as amantadine or memantine are used. Amantadine may have an increased incidence of tolerance with prolonged use and can cause psychosis, due to its additional effects on the dopamine system. Memantine has a more targeted pharmacological profile for the glutamate system, reduced incidence of psychosis and may therefore be preferred for individuals who cannot tolerate amantadine. Topiramate, is a another treatment option for resistant catatonia; it produces its therapeutic effects by producing glutamate antagonism via modulation of AMPA receptors.[8]
A version known as "catatonia-like deterioration" occurs in 12-17% of autistic young adults.[9]: 463 This form is made worse by antipsychotics. Unlike catatonic stupors, this deterioration happens very gradually. The only way to cure it is to keep the patient constantly active and the activities must have an end goal or they will not work. Stress must be reduced by not pressurising, keeping life predictable and by limiting choice as making choices is very stressful for catatonics.[citation needed]
See also
- Paranoid schizophrenia
- Disorganized schizophrenia
- Oneiroid syndrome
- Botulism
- Persistent vegetative state
- Philosophical zombie
References
- ^ http://www.entwicklung-der-psychiatrie.de/seiten/24.1_kahlbaum_die_katatonie.htm
- ^ Rosebush PI (1996). "Catatonia after benzodiazepine withdrawal". Journal of clinical psychopharmacology. 16 (4): 315–9. doi:10.1097/00004714-199608000-00007. PMID 883570.
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ignored (help) - ^ Deuschle M, Lederbogen F (2001). "Benzodiazepine withdrawal-induced catatonia". Pharmacopsychiatry. 34 (1): 41–2. doi:10.1055/s-2001-15188. PMID 11229621.
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ignored (help) - ^ Kanemoto K, Miyamoto T, Abe R (1999). "Ictal catatonia as a manifestation of de novo absence status epilepticus following benzodiazepine withdrawal". Seizure. 8 (6): 364–6. doi:10.1053/seiz.1999.0309. PMID 10512781.
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Daniels, J. (2009). "Catatonia: clinical aspects and neurobiological correlates". J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 21 (4): 371–80. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21.4.371. PMID 19996245.
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(help) - ^ a b c d e Fink M, Taylor MA: CATATONIA: A Clinician's Guide to Diagnosis and Treatment, Cambridge U Press, 2003"
- ^ Dhossche D et al.: Catatonia in Autism Spectrum Disorders, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006
- ^ Carroll, BT.; Goforth, HW.; Thomas, C.; Ahuja, N.; McDaniel, WW.; Kraus, MF.; Spiegel, DR.; Franco, KN.; Pozuelo, L. (2007). "Review of adjunctive glutamate antagonist therapy in the treatment of catatonic syndromes". J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 19 (4): 406–12. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.19.4.406. PMID 18070843.
- ^ Clayton, Paula J.; Fatemi, S. Hossein (2008). The medical basis of psychiatry. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. ISBN 1-58829-917-1.
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