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Motivations for modern searches for Lorentz violation are deviations from Lorentz invariance or symmetry (thus special relativity) and CPT symmetry, as predicted by some variations of quantum gravity, string theory, and some alternatives to general relativity. Lorentz violations concern the fundamental predictions of special relativity, such as the principle of relativity, the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial frames of reference, and time dilation, as well as the predictions of the standard model of particle physics.

To assess and predict possible violations, test theories of special relativity and effective field theories (EFT) such as the Standard-Model Extension (SME) have been invented. These models introduce Lorentz and CPT violations through spontaneous symmetry breaking caused by hypothetical background fields, resulting in some sort of preferred frame effects. This could lead, for instance, to modifications of the dispersion relation, causing differences between the limiting velocity of matter and the speed of light. Also the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism as a test theory for general relativity can be used to describe preferred frame effects. Another model including different Lorentz violations is doubly special relativity (DSR), which preserves the Planck energy as an invariant maximum energy-scale, yet without having a preferred reference frame.

Both terrestrial and astronomical experiments have been carried out, and new experimental techniques have been introduced. No Lorentz violations could be measured thus far, and exceptions in which positive results were reported have been refuted or lack further confirmations. For discussions of many experiments, see Mattingly (2005).^[1] For a detailed list of results of recent experimental searches, see Alan Kostelecký and Russell (2011).^[2] See also the main article Tests of special relativity.

Speed of light

Terrestrial

Many terrestrial experiments have been conducted, mostly with optical resonators or in particle accelerators, by which deviations from the isotropy of the speed of light are tested. Anisotropy parameters are given, for instance, by the Robertson-Mansouri-Sexl test theory (RMS). This allows to distinguish between the relevant orientation and velocity dependent parameters. In modern variants of the Michelson–Morley experiment, the dependence of light speed on the orientation of the apparatus and the relation of longitudinal and transverse lengths of bodies in motion is analyzed. Also modern variants of the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment, by which the dependence of light speed on the velocity of the apparatus and the relation of time dilation and length contraction is analyzed, have been conducted. The current precision, by which an anisotropy of the speed of light can be excluded, is at the 10⁻¹⁷ level. This is related to the relative velocity between the solar system and the rest frame of the cosmic microwave background radiation of ∼368 km/s (see also Resonator Michelson–Morley experiments).

In addition, the Standard-Model Extension (SME) can be used to obtain a larger number of isotropy coefficients in the photon sector. It uses the even- and odd-parity coefficients (3x3 matrices) ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{e-}$ , ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{o+}$ and ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{tr}$ .^[3] They can be interpreted as follows: ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{e-}$ represent anisotropic shifts in the two-way (forward and backwards) speed of light, ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{o+}$ represent anisotropic differences in the one-way speed of counterpropagating beams along an axis,^[4]^[5] and ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{tr}$ represent isotropic (orientation-independent) shifts in the one-way phase velocity of light.^[6] However, it was shown that such variations in the speed of light can be removed by suitable coordinate transformations and field redefinitions, though this doesn't mean that observed Lorentz violations can be completely removed that way, since such a redefinition only transfers those violations from the photon sector to the matter sector of SME.^[3] While ordinary symmetric optical resonators are suitable for testing even-parity effects and provide only tiny constraints on odd-parity effects, also asymmetric resonators have been built for the detection of odd-parity effects.^[6] For additional coefficients in the photon sector leading to birefringence of light in vacuum, which cannot be redefined as the other photon effects, see #Vacuum birefringence.

Another type of test of the ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{o+}$ related one-way light speed isotropy in combination with the electron sector of the SME was conducted by Bocquet et al. (2010).^[7] They searched for fluctuations in the 3-momentum of photons during Earth's rotation, by measuring the Compton scattering of ultrarelativistic electrons on monochromatic laser photons in the frame of the cosmic microwave background radiation, as originally suggested by Vahe Gurzadyan and Amur Margarian ^[8] (for details on that 'Compton Edge' method and analysis see,^[9] discussion e.g.^[10]).

Author	Year	RMS		SME
Author	Year	Orientation	Velocity	${\tilde {\kappa }}_{e-}$	${\tilde {\kappa }}_{o+}$	${\tilde {\kappa }}_{tr}$
Michimura et al.^[11]	2013				$\scriptstyle 0.7\pm 1\times 10^{-14}$	$\scriptstyle -0.4\pm 0.9\times 10^{-10}$
Baynes et al.^[12]	2012					$\scriptstyle 3\pm 11\times 10^{-10}$
Baynes et al.^[13]	2011				$\scriptstyle 0.7\pm 1.4\times 10^{-12}$	$\scriptstyle 3.4\pm 6.2\times 10^{-9}$
Hohensee et al.^[4]	2010			$\scriptstyle 0.8(0.6)\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle -1.5(1.2)\times 10^{-12}$	$\scriptstyle -1.5(0.74)\times 10^{-8}$
Bocquet et al.^[7]	2010				$\scriptstyle \leq 1.6\times 10^{-14}$ ^[14]
Herrmann et al.^[15]	2009	$\scriptstyle (4\pm 8)\times 10^{-12}$		$\scriptstyle (-0.31\pm 0.73)\times 10^{-17}$	$\scriptstyle (-0.14\pm 0.78)\times 10^{-13}$
Eisele et al.^[16]	2009	$\scriptstyle (-1.6\pm 6\pm 1.2)\times 10^{-12}$		$\scriptstyle (0.0\pm 1.0\pm 0.3)\times 10^{-17}$	$\scriptstyle (1.5\pm 1.5\pm 0.2)\times 10^{-13}$
Tobar et al.^[17]	2009		$\scriptstyle -4,8(3,7)\times 10^{-8}$
Tobar et al.^[18]	2009					$\scriptstyle -0.3\pm 3\times 10^{-7}$
Müller et al.^[19]	2007			$\scriptstyle (7.7(4.0))\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle (1.7(2.0))\times 10^{-12}$
Carone et al.^[20]	2006					$\scriptstyle \lesssim 3\times 10^{-8}$ ^[21]
Stanwix et al.^[22]	2006	$\scriptstyle 9.4(8.1)\times 10^{-11}$		$\scriptstyle (-6.9(2.2))\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle (-0.9(2.6))\times 10^{-12}$
Herrmann et al.^[23]	2005	$\scriptstyle (-2.1\pm 1.9)\times 10^{-10}$		$\scriptstyle (-3.1(2.5))\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle (-2.5(5.1))\times 10^{-12}$
Stanwix et al.^[24]	2005	$\scriptstyle -0.9(2.0)\times 10^{-10}$		$\scriptstyle (-0.63(0.43))\times 10^{-15}$	$\scriptstyle (0.20(0.21))\times 10^{-11}$
Antonini et al.^[25]	2005	$\scriptstyle (+0.5\pm 3\pm 0.7)\times 10^{-10}$		$\scriptstyle (-2\pm 0{,}2)\times 10^{-14}$
Wolf et al.^[26]	2004			$\scriptstyle (-5.7\pm 2.3)\times 10^{-15}$	$\scriptstyle (-1.8\pm 1.5)\times 10^{-11}$
Wolf et al.^[27]	2004	$\scriptstyle (+1.2\pm 2.2)\times 10^{-9}$	$\scriptstyle (3.7\pm 3.0)\times 10^{-7}$
Müller et al.^[28]	2003	$\scriptstyle (+2.2\pm 1.5)\times 10^{-9}$		$\scriptstyle (1.7\pm 2.6)\times 10^{-15}$	$\scriptstyle (14\pm 14)\times 10^{-11}$
Lipa et al.^[29]	2003			$\scriptstyle (1.4\pm 1.4\times 10^{-13}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-9}$
Wolf et al.^[30]	2003	$\scriptstyle (+1.5\pm 4.2)\times 10^{-9}$
Braxmaier et al.^[31]	2002		$\scriptstyle (1.9\pm 2.1)\times 10^{-5}$
Hils and Hall^[32]	1990		$\scriptstyle 6.6\times 10^{-5}$
Brillet and Hall^[33]	1979	$\scriptstyle \lesssim 5\times 10^{-9}$		$\scriptstyle \lesssim 10^{-15}$

Solar system

Besides terrestrial tests also astrometric tests using Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR), i.e. sending laser signals from Earth to Moon and back, have been conducted. They are ordinarily used to test general relativity and are evaluated using the Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism.^[34] However, since these measurements are based on the assumption that the speed of light is constant, they can also be used as tests of special relativity by analyzing potential distance and orbit oscillations. For instance, Zoltán Lajos Bay and White (1981) demonstrated the empirical foundations of the Lorentz group and thus special relativity by analyzing the planetary radar and LLR data.^[35]

In addition to the terrestrial Kennedy–Thorndike experiments mentioned above, Müller & Soffel (1995)^[36] and Müller et al. (1999)^[37] tested the RMS velocity dependence parameter by searching for anomalous distance oscillations using LLR. Since time dilation is already confirmed to high precision, a positive result would prove that light speed depends on the observer's velocity and length contraction is direction dependent (like in the other Kennedy–Thorndike experiments). However, no anomalous distance oscillations have been observed, with a RMS velocity dependence limit of $\scriptstyle (-5\pm 12)\times 10^{-5}$ ,^[37] comparable to that of Hils and Hall (1990, see table above on the right).

Vacuum dispersion

Another effect often discussed in connection with Quantum gravity is the possibility of Dispersion of light in vacuum (i.e. the dependence of light speed on photon energy), due to Lorentz violating Dispersion relations. This effect should be strong at energy levels comparable to, or beyond the Planck energy of ~1.22×10¹⁹ GeV, while being extraordinarily weak at energies accessible in the laboratory or observed in astrophysical objects. In an attempt to observe a weak dependence of speed on energy, light from distant astrophysical sources has been examined in many experiments. In the following papers, light from gamma ray bursts and from distant galaxies are used to measure such relations. Especially the Fermi-LAT group was able show that no energy dependence and thus no observable Lorentz violation occurs in the photon sector at photon energies up to 31 GeV,^[38] which excludes a large class of Lorentz-violating quantum gravity models.

Name	Year	QG-Bounds in GeV
Fermi-LAT-GBM-Collaboration^[38]	2009	$\scriptstyle >1.46\times 10^{19}$
H.E.S.S.-Collaboration^[39]	2008	$\scriptstyle \geq 7.2\times 10^{17}$
MAGIC-Collaboration^[40]	2007	$\scriptstyle \geq 0.21\times 10^{18}$
Lamon et al.^[41]	2008	$\scriptstyle \geq 3.2\times 10^{11}$
Martinez et al.^[42]	2006	$\scriptstyle \geq 0.66\times 10^{17}$
Ellis et al.^[43]^[44]	2006/8	$\scriptstyle \geq 1.4\times 10^{16}$
Boggs et al.^[45]	2004	$\scriptstyle \geq 1.8\times 10^{17}$
Ellis et al.^[46]	2003	$\scriptstyle \geq 6.9\times 10^{15}$
Ellis et al.^[47]	2000	$\scriptstyle \geq 10^{15}$
Schaefer^[48]	1999	$\scriptstyle \geq 2.7\times 10^{16}$
Biller^[49]	1999	$\scriptstyle >4\times 10^{16}$
Kaaret^[50]	1999	$\scriptstyle >1.8\times 10^{15}$

Vacuum birefringence

Lorentz violating dispersion relations due to the presence of an anisotropic space might also lead to vacuum birefringence and parity violations. For instance, the polarization plane of photons might rotate due to velocity differences between left- and right-handed photons. In particular, gamma ray bursts, galactic radiation, and the cosmic microwave background radiation are examined. The SME coefficients $\scriptstyle k_{(V)00}^{(3)}$ and $\scriptstyle k_{(V)00}^{(5)}$ for Lorentz violation are given, 3 and 5 denote the mass dimensions employed. The latter corresponds to $\xi$ in another EFT by ${\scriptstyle k_{(V)00}^{(5)}={\frac {3{\sqrt {4\pi }}\xi }{5m_{\mathrm {P} }}}}$ , $m_{P}$ being the Planck mass.^[51] No significant Lorentz violations could be measured up to now.^[2]

Name	Year	SME bounds		EFT bound $\xi$
Name	Year	$\scriptstyle k_{(V)00}^{(3)}$ in GeV	$\scriptstyle k_{(V)00}^{(5)}$ in GeV⁻¹	EFT bound $\xi$
Götz et al.^[52]	2013		$\scriptstyle \leq 5.9\times 10^{-35}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 3.4\times 10^{-16}$
Toma et al.^[53]	2012		$\scriptstyle \leq 1.4\times 10^{-34}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 8\times 10^{-16}$
Laurent et al.^[54]	2011		$\scriptstyle \leq 1.9\times 10^{-33}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 1.1\times 10^{-14}$
Stecker^[51]	2011		$\scriptstyle \leq 4.2\times 10^{-34}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 2.4\times 10^{-15}$
Kostelecký et al.^[55]	2009		$\scriptstyle \leq 1\times 10^{-32}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 9\times 10^{-14}$
QUaD^[56]	2008	$\scriptstyle \leq 2\times 10^{-43}$
Kostelecký et al.^[57]	2008	$\scriptstyle =(2.3\pm 5.4)\times 10^{-43}$
Maccione et al.^[58]	2008		$\scriptstyle \leq 1.5\times 10^{-28}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 9\times 10^{-10}$
Komatsu et al.^[59]	2008	$\scriptstyle =(1.2\pm 2.2)\times 10^{-43}$
Kahniashvili et al.^[60]	2008	$\scriptstyle \leq 2.5\times 10^{-43}$
Xia et al.^[61]	2008	$\scriptstyle =(2.6\pm 1.9)\times 10^{-43}$
Cabella et al.^[62]	2007	$\scriptstyle =(2.5\pm 3.0)\times 10^{-43}$
Fan et al.^[63]	2007		$\scriptstyle \leq 3.4\times 10^{-26}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 2\times 10^{-7}$
Feng et al.^[64]	2006	$\scriptstyle =(6.0\pm 4.0)\times 10^{-43}$
Gleiser et al.^[65]	2001		$\scriptstyle \leq 8.7\times 10^{-23}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 2\times 10^{-4}$
Carroll et al.^[66]	1990	$\scriptstyle \leq 2\times 10^{-42}$

Threshold effects

Lorentz violations could lead to otherwise forbidden effects at threshold energy, for example a difference between the speed of photons and the limiting velocity of any particle having a charge structure (protons, electrons, neutrinos). This is because the dispersion relation is assumed to be modified in Lorentz violating EFT models such as SME. Depending on which of these particles travels faster or slower than the speed of light, effects such as the following can occur:^[67]^[68]

Photon decay at superluminal speed. These (hypothetical) high-energy photons would quickly decay into other particles, which means that high energy light cannot propagate over long distances. So the mere existence of high energy light from astronomic sources constrains possible deviations from the limiting velocity.
Vacuum Cherenkov radiation at superluminal speed of any particle (protons, electrons, neutrinos) having a charge structure. In this case, emission of Bremsstrahlung can occur, until the particle falls below threshold and subluminal speed is reached again. This is similar to the known Cherenkov radiation in media, in which particles are traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium. Deviations from the limiting velocity can be constrained by observing high energy particles of distant astronomic sources that reach Earth.
The rate of synchrotron radiation could be modified, if the limiting velocity between charged particles and photons is different.
The Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit could be evaded by Lorentz violating effects. However, recent measurements indicate that this limit really exists.

Since astronomic measurements also contain additional assumptions – like the unknown conditions at the emission or along the path traversed by the particles, or the nature of the particles –, terrestrial measurements provide results of greater clarity, even though the bounds are lower (the following bounds describe maximal deviations between the speed of light and the limiting velocity of matter):

Name	Year	EFT bounds				Particle	Astr./Terr.
		Photon decay	Cherenkov	Synchrotron	GZK
Stecker & Scully^[69]	2009				$\scriptstyle \leq 4.5\times 10^{-23}$	UHECR	Astr.
Altschul^[70]	2009			$\scriptstyle \leq 5\times 10^{-15}$		Electron	Terr.
Hohensee et al.^[68]	2009	$\scriptstyle \leq -5.8\times 10^{-12}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 1.2\times 10^{-11}$			Electron	Terr.
Bi et al.^[71]	2008				$\scriptstyle \leq 3\times 10^{-23}$	UHECR	Astr.
Klinkhamer & Schreck^[72]	2008	$\scriptstyle \leq -9\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 6\times 10^{-20}$			UHECR	Astr.
Klinkhamer & Risse^[73]	2007		$\scriptstyle \leq 2\times 10^{-19}$			UHECR	Astr.
Kaufhold et al.^[74]	2007		$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-17}$			UHECR	Astr.
Altschul^[75]	2005			$\scriptstyle \leq 6\times 10^{-20}$		Electron	Astr.
Gagnon et al.^[76]	2004	$\scriptstyle \leq -2\times 10^{-21}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 5\times 10^{-24}$			UHECR	Astr.
Jacobson et al.^[77]	2003	$\scriptstyle \leq -2\times 10^{-16}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 5\times 10^{-20}$			Electron	Astr.
Coleman & Glashow^[78]	1997	$\scriptstyle \leq -1.5\times 10^{-15}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 5\times 10^{-23}$			UHECR	Astr.

Time dilation

The classic time dilation experiments such as the Ives–Stilwell experiment, the Moessbauer rotor experiments, and the Time dilation of moving particles, have been enhanced by modernized equipment. For example, the Doppler shift of lithium ions traveling at high speeds is evaluated by using saturated spectroscopy in heavy ion storage rings. For more information, see Modern Ives–Stilwell experiments.

The current precision with which time dilation is measured (using the RMS test theory), is at the ~10⁻⁸ level. It was shown, that Ives-Stilwell type experiments are also sensitive to the ${\tilde {\kappa }}_{tr}$ isotropic light speed coefficient of the SME, as introduced above.^[6] Chou et al. (2010) even managed to measure a frequency shift of ~10⁻¹⁶ due to time dilation, namely at every day's speeds such as 36 km/h.^[79]

Author	Year	Velocity	Maximum deviation from time dilation	Fourth order RMS bounds
Novotny et al.^[80]	2009	0,34c	$\scriptstyle \leq 1.3\times 10^{-6}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 1.2\times 10^{-5}$
Reinhardt et al.^[81]	2007	0,064c	$\scriptstyle \leq 8.4\times 10^{-8}$
Saathoff et al.^[82]	2003	0,064c	$\scriptstyle \leq 2.2\times 10^{-7}$
Grieser et al.^[83]	1994	0,064c	$\scriptstyle \leq 1\times 10^{-6}$	$\scriptstyle \leq 2.7\times 10^{-4}$

Clock comparison

By this kind of spectroscopy experiments – called Hughes–Drever experiments as well – violations of Lorentz invariance in the interactions of protons and neutrons are investigated, caused by a possible existence of a preferred frame. The energy levels of those nucleons are studied in order to find anisotropies in their frequencies ("clocks"). Clock anisotropy experiments are currently the most sensitive terrestrial ones, because the current precision by which Lorentz violations can be excluded, lies at the 10⁻³³ GeV level. Using spin-polarized torsion balances, also anisotropies with respect to electrons can be examined.

Author	Year	SME anisotropy in GeV
Author	Year	Proton	Neutron
Peck et al.^[84]	2012	$\scriptstyle <4\times 10^{-30}$	$\scriptstyle <3.7\times 10^{-31}$
Smiciklas et al.^[85]	2011		$\scriptstyle (4.8\pm 4.4)\times 10^{-32}$
Gemmel et al.^[86]	2010		$\scriptstyle <3.7\times 10^{-32}$
Brown et al.^[87]	2010	$\scriptstyle <6\times 10^{-32}$	$\scriptstyle <3.7\times 10^{-33}$
Altarev et al.^[88]	2009		$\scriptstyle <2\times 10^{-29}$
Wolf et al.^[89]	2006	$\scriptstyle (-1.8(2.8))\times 10^{-25}$
Canè et al.^[90]	2004		$\scriptstyle (8.0\pm 9.5)\times 10^{-32}$
Phillips et al.^[91]	2000	$\scriptstyle <2\times 10^{-27}$
Bear et al.^[92]	2000		$\scriptstyle (4.0\pm 3.3)\times 10^{-31}$

Electron
Author	Year	SME anisotropy in GeV
Heckel et al.^[93]	2008	$\scriptstyle (4.0\pm 3.3)\times 10^{-31}$
Heckel et al.^[94]	2006	$\scriptstyle <5\times 10^{-30}$
Hou et al.^[95]	2003	$\scriptstyle (1.8\pm 5.3)\times 10^{-30}$
Humphrey et al.^[96]	2003	$\scriptstyle <2\times 10^{-27}$

CPT and antimatter tests

Another fundamental symmetry of nature is CPT symmetry. It was shown that CPT violations lead to Lorentz violations in quantum field theory (even though there are nonlocal exceptions).^[97]^[98] CPT symmetry requires, for instance, the equality of mass, and equality of decay rates between matter and antimatter. For classic tests of decay rates, see Accelerator tests of time dilation and CPT symmetry.

Modern tests by which CPT symmetry has been confirmed are mainly conducted in the neutral meson sector. In large particle accelerators, direct measurements of mass differences between top- and antitop-quarks have been conducted as well.

Neutral B mesons
Author	Year
Belle^[99]	2012
Kostelecký et al.^[100]	2010
BaBar^[101]	2008
Belle^[102]	2003
Neutral D mesons
FOCUS^[103]	2003

Neutral kaons
Author	Year
KTeV^[104]	2011
KLOE^[105]	2006
CPLEAR^[106]	2003
KTeV^[107]	2003
NA31^[108]	1990

Top- and antitop quarks
Author	Year
CDF^[109]	2012
CMS^[110]	2012
D0^[111]	2011
CDF^[112]	2011
D0^[113]	2009

Using SME, also additional consequences of CPT violation in the neutral meson sector can be formulated.^[100] Other SME related CPT tests have been performed as well:

Using Penning traps in which individual charged particles and their counterparts are trapped, Gabrielse et al. (1999) examined cyclotron frequencies in proton-antiproton measurements, and couldn't find any deviation down to 9·10⁻¹¹.^[114]
Hans Dehmelt et al. tested the anomaly frequency, which plays a fundamental role in the measurement of the electron's gyromagnetic ratio. They searched for sidereal variations, and differences between electrons and positrons as well. Eventually they found no deviations, thereby establishing bounds of 10⁻²⁴ GeV.^[115]
Hughes et al. (2001) examined muons for sidereal signals in the spectrum of muons, and found no Lorentz violation down to 10⁻²³ GeV.^[116]
The "Muon g-2" collaboration of the Brookhaven National Laboratory searched for deviations in the anomaly frequency of muons and anti-muons, and for sidereal variations under consideration of Earth's orientation. Also here, no Lorentz violations could be found, with a precision of 10⁻²⁴ GeV.^[117]

Other particles and interactions

Third generation particles have been examined for potential Lorentz violations using SME. For instance, Altschul (2007) placed upper limits on Lorentz violation of the tau of 10⁻⁸, by searching for anomalous absorption of high energy astrophysical radiation.^[118] During the BaBar experiment (2007) it was searched for sidereal variations during Earth's rotation using B mesons (thus bottom quarks) and their antiparticles. No Lorentz and CPT violating signal was found with an upper limit of $\scriptstyle \leq (-3.0\pm 2.4)\times 10^{-15}$ .^[119] Also top quark pairs have been examined in the D0 experiment (2012). They showed that the cross section production of these pairs doesn't depend on sidereal time during Earth's rotation.^[120]

Lorentz violation bounds on Bhabha scattering have been given by Charneski et al. (2012).^[121] They showed that differential cross sections for the vector and axial couplings in QED become direction dependent in the presence of Lorentz violation. They found no indication of such an effect, placing upper limits on Lorentz violations of $\scriptstyle \leq 10^{14}({\text{eV}})^{-1}$ .

Gravitation

The influence of Lorentz violation on gravitational fields and thus general relativity was analyzed as well. The standard framework for such investigations is the Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), in which Lorentz violating preferred frame effects are described by the parameters $\alpha _{1}$ , $\alpha _{2}$ and $\alpha _{3}$ (see the PPN article on observational bounds on these parameters). Lorentz violations are also discussed in relation to Alternatives to general relativity such as Loop quantum gravity, Emergent gravity, Einstein aether theory or Hořava–Lifshitz gravity.

Also SME is suitable to analyze Lorentz violations in the gravitational sector. Bailey and Kostelecky (2006) constrained Lorentz violations down to $10^{-9}$ by analyzing the perihelion shifts of Mercury and Earth, and down to $10^{-13}$ in relation to solar spin precession.^[122] Battat et al. (2007) examined Lunar Laser Ranging data and found no oscillatory perturbations in the lunar orbit. Their strongest SME bound excluding Lorentz violation was $\scriptstyle (6.9\pm 4.5)\times 10^{-11}$ .^[123] Iorio (2012) obtained bounds at the $10^{-9}$ level by examining Keplerian orbital elements of a test particle acted upon by Lorentz-violating gravitomagnetic accelerations.^[124] Xie (2012) analyzed the advance of periastron of binary pulsars, setting limits on Lorentz violation at the $10^{-10}$ level.^[125]

Neutrino tests

Neutrino oscillations

Although neutrino oscillations have been experimentally confirmed, the theoretical foundations are still controversial, as it can be seen in the discussion related to sterile neutrinos. This makes predictions of possible Lorentz violations very complicated. It is generally assumed that neutrino oscillations require a certain finite mass. However, oscillations could also occur as a consequence of Lorentz violations, so there are speculations as to how much those violations contribute to the mass of the neutrinos.^[126]

Additionally, a series of investigations have been published in which a sidereal dependence of the occurrence of neutrino oscillations was tested, which could arise when there were a preferred background field. This, possible CPT violations, and other coefficients of Lorentz violations in the framework of SME, have been tested. Here, some of the achieved GeV bounds for the validity of Lorentz invariance are stated:

Name	Year	SME bounds in GeV
Double Chooz^[127]	2012	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-20}$
MINOS^[128]	2012	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-23}$
MiniBooNE^[129]	2012	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-20}$
IceCube^[130]	2010	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-23}$
MINOS^[131]	2010	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-23}$
MINOS^[132]	2008	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-20}$
LSND^[133]	2005	$\scriptstyle \leq 10^{-19}$

Neutrino speed

Since the discovery of neutrino oscillations, it is assumed that their speed is slightly below the speed of light. Direct velocity measurements indicated an upper limit for relative speed differences between light and neutrinos of $|v-c|/c<10^{-9}$ , see measurements of neutrino speed.

Also indirect constraints on neutrino velocity, on the basis of effective field theories such as SME, can be achieved by searching for Vacuum Cherenkov radiation. For example, neutrinos should exhibit Bremsstrahlung in the form of electron-positron pair production.^[134] Another possibility in the same framework is the investigation of the decay of pions into muons and neutrinos. Superluminal neutrinos would considerably delay those decay processes. The absence of those effects indicate tight limits for velocity differences between light and neutrinos.^[135]

Name	Year	Energy	SME bounds for (v-c)/c
Name	Year	Energy	Vacuum Cherenkov	Pion decay
Cowsik et al.^[136]	2012	100 TeV	$\scriptstyle <10^{-13}$
Huo et al.^[137]	2012	400 TeV	$\scriptstyle <7.8\times 10^{-12}$
ICARUS^[138]	2011	17 GeV	$\scriptstyle <2.5\times 10^{-8}$
Cowsik et al.^[139]	2011	400 TeV		$\scriptstyle <10^{-12}$
Bi et al.^[140]	2011	400 TeV		$\scriptstyle <10^{-12}$
Cohen/Glashow^[141]	2011	100 TeV	$\scriptstyle <1.7\times 10^{-11}$

Also velocity differences between neutrino flavors could arise. A comparison between muon- and electron-neutrinos by Coleman & Glashow (1998) gave a negative result, with bounds $<6\times 10^{-22}$ .^[78]

Reports of alleged Lorentz violations

LSND, MiniBooNE

In 2001, the LSND experiment observed a 3.8σ excess of antineutrino interactions in neutrino oscillations, which contradicts the standard model.^[142] First results of the more recent MiniBooNE experiment appeared to exclude this data above an energy scale of 450 MeV, but they had checked neutrino interactions, not antineutrino ones.^[143] In 2008, however, they reported an excess of electron-like neutrino events between 200–475 MeV.^[144] And in 2010, when carried out with antineutrinos (as in LSND), the result was in agreement with the LSND result, that is, an excess at the energy scale from 450–1250 MeV was observed.^[145]^[146] Whether those anomalies can be explained by sterile neutrinos, or whether they indicate Lorentz violations, is still discussed and subject to further theoretical and experimental researches.^[147]

Solved

In 2011, the OPERA Collaboration published (in a non-peer reviewed arXiv preprint) the results of neutrino measurements, according to which neutrinos are traveling faster than light.^[148] The neutrinos apparently arrived early by ~60 ns. The standard deviation was 6σ, clearly beyond the 5σ limit necessary for a significant result. However, in 2012 it was found that this result was due to measurement errors. The end result was consistent with the speed of light,^[149] see Faster-than-light neutrino anomaly.

In 2010, MINOS reported differences between the disappearance (and thus the masses) of neutrinos and antineutrinos at the 2.3 sigma level. This would violate CPT symmetry and Lorentz symmetry.^[150]^[151]^[152] However, in 2011 MINOS updated their antineutrino results, reporting that the difference is not as great as initially expected, after evaluating further data.^[153] In 2012, they published a paper in which they reported that the difference is now removed.^[154]

In 2007, the MAGIC Collaboration published a paper, in which they claimed a possible energy dependence of the speed of photons from the galaxy Markarian 501. They admitted, that also a possible energy-dependent emission effect could have cause this result as well.^[40]^[155] However, the MAGIC result was superseded by the substantially more precise measurements of the Fermi-LAT group, which couldn't find any effect even beyond the Planck energy.^[38] For details, see section Dispersion.

In 1997, Nodland & Ralston claimed to have found a rotation of the polarization plane of light coming from distant radio galaxies. This would indicate an anisotropy of space.^[156]^[157]^[158] This attracted some interest in the media. However, some criticisms immediately appeared, which disputed the interpretation of the data, and who alluded to errors in the publication.^[159]^[160]^[161]^[162]^[163]^[164]^[165] More recent researches also haven't found any evidence for this effect, see section Birefringence.

References

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[14] $\scriptstyle {{\tilde {\kappa }}_{o+}}$ combined with electron coefficents

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[21] Measured by examining the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.

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@@ Line 153: / Line 153: @@
 Lorentz violations could lead to otherwise forbidden effects at [[threshold energy]], for example a difference between the speed of photons and the limiting velocity of any particle having a charge structure (protons, electrons, neutrinos). This is because the [[dispersion relation]] is assumed to be modified in Lorentz violating [[effective field theory|EFT]] models such as [[Standard-Model Extension|SME]]. Depending on which of these particles travels faster or slower than the speed of light, effects such as the following can occur:<ref name=JacNeu>{{cite journal |author=Jacobson ''et al.''|title=Threshold effects and Planck scale Lorentz violation: Combined constraints from high energy astrophysics|journal=Physical Review D|volume=67|issue=12|year=2002|pages=124011|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.67.124011|arxiv=hep-ph/0209264}}</ref><ref name=hohe />
-*''Photon decay'' at superluminal speed. These photons quickly decay into other particles, which means that high energy light cannot propagate over long distances. So the mere existence of high energy light from astronomic sources constrains possible deviations from the limiting velocity.
+*''Photon decay'' at superluminal speed. These (hypothetical) high-energy photons would quickly decay into other particles, which means that high energy light cannot propagate over long distances. So the mere existence of high energy light from astronomic sources constrains possible deviations from the limiting velocity.
-*''Vacuum [[Cherenkov radiation]]'' at superluminal speed of any particle (protons, electrons, neutrinos) having a charge structure. In this case, emission of [[Bremsstrahlung]] can occur, until the particle falls below threshold and subluminal speed is reached again. This is similar to the known Cherenkov radiation in media, in which particles are traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium. Deviations from the limiting velocity can be constrained, by observing high energy particles of distant astronomic sources that reach Earth.
+*''Vacuum [[Cherenkov radiation]]'' at superluminal speed of any particle (protons, electrons, neutrinos) having a charge structure. In this case, emission of [[Bremsstrahlung]] can occur, until the particle falls below threshold and subluminal speed is reached again. This is similar to the known Cherenkov radiation in media, in which particles are traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in that medium. Deviations from the limiting velocity can be constrained by observing high energy particles of distant astronomic sources that reach Earth.
 *The rate of ''[[synchrotron radiation]]'' could be modified, if the limiting velocity between charged particles and photons is different.
 *The ''[[Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit]]'' could be evaded by Lorentz violating effects. However, recent measurements indicate that this limit really exists.
-Since astronomic measurements also contain additional assumptions – like the unknown conditions at the emission or along the path traversed by the particles, or the nature of the particles –, terrestrial measurements provide results of higher significance, even though the bounds are lower (the following bounds describe maximal deviations between the speed of light and the limiting velocity of matter):
+Since astronomic measurements also contain additional assumptions – like the unknown conditions at the emission or along the path traversed by the particles, or the nature of the particles –, terrestrial measurements provide results of greater clarity, even though the bounds are lower (the following bounds describe maximal deviations between the speed of light and the limiting velocity of matter):
 {|class=wikitable

v t e Tests of special relativity
Speed/isotropy	Michelson–Morley experiment Kennedy–Thorndike experiment Moessbauer rotor experiments Resonator experiments de Sitter double star experiment Hammar experiment Measurements of neutrino speed
Lorentz invariance	Modern searches for Lorentz violation Hughes–Drever experiment Trouton–Noble experiment Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace Trouton–Rankine experiment Antimatter tests of Lorentz violation Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations Lorentz-violating electrodynamics
Time dilation Length contraction	Ives–Stilwell experiment Moessbauer rotor experiments Experimental testing of time dilation Hafele–Keating experiment Length contraction confirmations
Relativistic energy	Tests of relativistic energy and momentum Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
Fizeau/Sagnac	Fizeau experiment Sagnac experiment Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
Alternatives	Refutations of aether theory Refutations of emission theory
General	One-way speed of light Test theories of special relativity Standard-Model Extension