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File:Fall of Tripolis.jpg|After the fall of [[Tripolitsa]] in 1821 thousands of Muslims were killed by the Greek revolutionaries.
File:Fall of Tripolis.jpg|After the fall of [[Tripolitsa]] in 1821 thousands of Muslims were killed by the Greek rebels.
File:Muslim refugees in the initial phase of the First Balkan War.png|Turkish refugees in Thrace fleeing before the Bulgarian army during the [[Balkan wars]] (1912-1913).
File:Muslim refugees in the initial phase of the First Balkan War.png|Turkish refugees in Thrace fleeing before the Bulgarian army during the [[Balkan wars]] (1912-1913).
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Revision as of 06:22, 1 April 2014

Persecution of Ottoman Muslims
Part of the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Map of persecutions against Ottoman Muslims between 1683 and 1922.[verification needed]
LocationOttoman Empire
Date1683–1922
TargetMuslim population of the Ottoman Empire
Attack type
Deportation, expulsion, massacres
DeathsMillions

Persecution of Ottoman Muslims refer to the persecution, massacre, or ethnic cleansing of Muslims (most prominently Ottoman Turks) by non-Muslim ethnic groups during the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.[1] It affected several million people. The events took place during the Russian Empire's expansion around the Black Sea and rise of nationalism in the Balkans and continued in World War I.

Background

Turkish settlement and Islamisation

Turkish Muslims settled in the Balkans during the reign of the Ottoman Empire. Some of them were Yörüks, nomads who quickly became sedentary and others from urban classes. They settled in almost all of the towns but the majority of them settled in the Eastern Balkans. Main areas of settlement were: Ludogorie, Dobrudzha the Thracian plain, the mountains and plains of northern Greece and Eastern Macedonia around the Vardar river. Some of the native population converted to Islam and became Turkified over time.

Between the 15th and 17th centuries, large numbers of native Balkan peoples converted to Islam. Places of mass conversion were in Bosnia, Albania, Crete, and the Rhodope Mountains.

Great Turkish War

Even before the Great Turkish War (1683—1699) Austrians and Venetians supported Christian irregulars and rebellious highlanders of Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania to raid their Muslim Slav fellow-citizens.[2]

The Great Turkish War ending in 1699 was the first time the Ottomans lost large areas to Christians. Most of Hungary, Podolia, and the Morea was lost, and the Muslim minorities were killed, enslaved, or expelled. The Ottomans regained the Morea quickly, and Muslims soon became part of the population or were never thoroughly displaced in the first place.

Most of the Christians who lived in the Ottoman Empire were Orthodox so Russia was particularly interested for them. In 1711 Peter the Great invited Balkan Christians to revolt against Ottomans.[3]

Croatia

About one quarter of all people living in Slavonia in 16th century were Muslims who mostly lived in towns, with Osijek and Požega being the largest Muslim settlements.[4] Like other Muslims who lived in Croatia (Lika and Kordun) and Dalmatia, they were all forced to leave their homes until the end of 1699. This was the first example of the cleansing of Muslims in this region. This cleansing of Muslims "enjoyed the benediction of Catholic church". Around 130,000 Muslims from Croatia and Slavonia were driven to Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina.[5][6] Basically, all Muslims who lived in Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were either forced to exile, murdered or enslaved.[4]

Thousands of Serb refugees crossed Danube and populated territories of Habsburg Monarchy left by Muslims. Leopold I granted ethno-religious autonomy to them without giving any privileges to the remainin Muslim population who therefore fled to Bosnia, Herzegovina and Serbia spreading anti-Christian sentiment among other Muslims there.[7] The relations between non-Muslim and Muslim population of Ottoman held Balkans became progressively worse.[8]

In the beginning of the 18th century remaining Muslims of Slavonia moved to Posavina.[9][10] The Ottoman authorities encouraged hopes of expelled Muslims for a quick return to their homes and settled them in the border regions.[11] The Muslims comprised about 2/3 population of Lika. All of them, like Muslims who lived in other parts of Croatia, were forced to convert to Catholicism or to be expelled.[12] Almost all buildings that belonged to Muslim religion and culture were destroyed in the region of Croatia after Muslims had to leave it.[13]

Montenegro

At the beginning of the 18th century (1709 or 1711) Orthodox Serbs massacred their Muslim neighbors in Montenegro.[14][15]

Russian expansion

Crimean Khanate

Main article: Crimean Khanate

Nomadic Turkic speaking peoples, later known as "Tatars" had inhabited the steppes of Southern Ukraine since the early Middle Ages. Most of them became islamised after the 13th century. After the dissolution of the Golden Horde the Crimean Khanate was established in the late 15th century. They gained control of northern Crimea while the Ottomans took over the south. This khanate had a long history of war with its Christian neighbours Russia and Poland. In the late 18th century the Russians expanded their empire with war against the Ottomans and Crimeans. After a series of destructive invasions into Crimea it became annexed to the Russian Empire in 1783. Russian discrimination and repression started a Crimean Tatar and Nogais exodus which would last into the 19th century.[16] 30,000 in 1778, some 100,000 between 1783 and 1791, and after the Crimean War between 100,000 and 150,000 left and migrated to the Ottoman Empire.[17]

Caucasus

Main article: Ethnic cleansing of Circassians

The native peoples of the Caucasus had been practically independent of outside powers during their existence. The east was Islamised rather early while in the west. the Circassians converted in the late 18th century. Russian encroachment on these peoples land began in the 16th century first with the settling of Cossacks in the lowlands. A low intensity conflict took place during the next centuries. In the 19th century Russia wished a more intense annexation and this resulted in the expansion of the conflict. Several years of dramatic resistance was offered by the natives who were in the end overwhelmed by the Russian armies. These wars resulted in a huge loss of lives, destruction of property and most of the Circassians were expelled to the Ottoman Empire.[18] Many of them died during the process or place of arrival. Nearly 30.000 Circassians died in Trabzon.[19] Survivors were scattered around Anatolia. A smaller number of eastern Caucasians migrated also. After the Crimean War the majority of the Abkhazians left their homeland after siding with an Ottoman invasion army. Tens of thousands Abkhazians left after a revolt in 1864.[20]

During the Russian conquest of the southern Caucasus a number of Turkic peoples called Karapapaks left their lands and settled in the Ottoman Empire.

Nationalist uprisings

Serbian Revolt

Main article: First Serbian Uprising

In 1804 a major Serbian Revolt broke out in the Belgrade area. It was accompanied by attacks on the local Muslims. After some time insurgents took over Belgrade in 1806 where a massacre took place[21] and some other towns. In the end Serbia became an autonomous country with most of the Muslims been killed or expelled. During the revolts 15,000–20,000 Muslims fled or were expelled.[22] In Belgrade and the rest of Serbia there remained a Muslim population of some 23,000 who were also forcibly expelled after 1862.[23]

Greek Revolution

See also: Massacre of Tripoli and Navarino Massacre

In 1821, a major Greek revolt broke out in Southern Greece. Insurgents gained control of most of the countryside while the Muslims fled to the fortified towns and castles.[24] Each one of them was besieged and gradually through starvation or surrender most were taken over by the Greeks. In the massacres of April 1821 some 15.000 were killed.[24] The worst massacre happened in Tripolitsa, some 8.000 Muslims and Jews died.[24] In the end an Independent Greece was set up. Most of the Muslims in its area had been killed or expelled during the conflict.[24]

A revolt also broke out in Crete but it remained Ottoman. In the course of the 19th century more revolts broke out and the Muslims declined dramatically through massacre or migration. The population decreased form 73.234 in 1881 to 33.281 in 1900. The last remaining Cretan Muslims, some 23.500, were sent to Turkey by the population exchange.[25] Thessaly was ceded to Greece after 1881, the local Muslims, some 40.000, emigrated and by 1911 only 3.000 remained.[24]

Bulgarian uprising

Main article: April Uprising

In 1876 a Bulgarian uprising broke out in dozens of villages. The first attacks were made against the local Muslims[citation needed] but in a short time the Ottomans violently suppressed the uprising.

Russo-Turkish war

Balkans

Main article: Russo-Turkish War (1877–78)

The Bulgarian uprising eventually lead to a war between Russia and the Ottomans. Russia invaded the Ottoman Balkans through Dobrudzha and northern Bulgaria attacking the Muslim population. In this war the Ottomans were defeated and in the process a large part of the Turks of Bulgaria fled to Anatolia and Constantinople. It was a cold winter and through massacres and diseases a large part of them died. Some of them returned after the war but most of these left again after upression. The Bulgarian Turks settled mostly around the Sea of Marmara. Some of them had been wealthy and they played an important part in the Ottoman elite in later years. Al most half of the pre war 1,5 million Muslim population of Bulgaria was gone, an estimated 200.000 died and the rest fled.[26]

Migration continued in the peace time, some 350.000 Bulgarian Muslims left the country between 1880 and 1911.[27]

During this war Serbia declared war on the Ottomans, after the peace it gained the area around Niš. The majority of the local Muslims, some 50.000,[28] migrated mostly to Kosovo.[29]

In 1875 a Muslims and Christians conflict broke out in Bosnia. In 1878 Bosnia was occupied by the Austria-Hungary and after some Muslim resistance annexed. A large number of Muslims migrated to areas under Ottoman control, some to the Balkans some to Anatolia.

Caucasus

The war continued in the east and after the peace area around Kars was ceded to Russia. This resulted in a large number of Muslims leaving and settling in remaining Ottoman lands.

Italo-Turkish War

Main article: 1911 Tripoli massacre

During the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–12, the 1911 Tripoli massacre took place, where Italian troops committed a series of massacres against the Turkish and Libyan population of the former Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (province). The Italians systematically killed over 4,000 civilians by moving through the local homes one by one, including burning several hundred women and children inside a mosque in the Mechiya oasis.[30] Although Italy attempted to prevent the news of the massacres from reaching the outside world, they became internationally known.[30]

Balkan Wars

Main article: Balkan Wars

In 1912 Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro declared war on the Ottomans. The Ottomans quickly lost territory. The invading armies and Christian insurgents committed a wide range of atrocities upon the Muslim population.[31] In Kosovo and Albania most of the victims were Albanians while in other areas most of the victims were Turks and Pomaks. A large number of Pomaks in the Rhodopes were forcibly converted to Orthodoxy but later allowed to reconvert, most of them did.[32] During this war hundreds of thousands of the Turks and Pomaks fled their villages and became refugees.[33] Thessaloniki and Adrianople were crowded with them. By sea and land mostly they settled in Ottoman Thrace and Anatolia.

World War I and the Turkish War of Independence

Caucasus Campaign

During the Russian invasion of Ottoman lands many atrocities were carried out against the local Turks and Kurds by the Russian army and Armenian volunteers. For Armenians, that was the first phase of Armenian revenge for genocide, which cost the lives of about a million Armenians.[34] A large part of the local Muslim Turks and Kurds fled west after the Russian invasion of 1916.[35] According to J. Rummel at least 128.000 Muslims were killed by Russian and Armenian troops/irregulars during the war.[36]

Turkish–Armenian War

IgdirGenocide Monument and Museum, erected to the memory of Turks killed by Armenians.
Main article: Turkish–Armenian War

During January–February 1918 some 10.000 Muslims were killed in Erzincan and Erzurum by retreating Armenian troops.[35]

Franco-Turkish_War

Main article: Franco-Turkish War

Cilicia was occupied by the British after World War I, who were later replaced by the French. These took an Armenian legion with them who persecuted the local Muslims as well as arming returning Armenian refugees to the region and assisting them. Eventually the Turks responded with resistance against the French occupation, battles took place in Marash, Aintab, and Urfa. Most of these cities were destroyed during the process with large civilian suffering. The French left the area together with the Armenians after 1920. On top of it all, the sheer desire for retribution for the genocide as justification for armed Armenians.[35]

Greco–Turkish War

Main article: Greco-Turkish War (1919–22) § Greek massacres of Turks

After the Greek landing and the following occupation of Western Anatolia after World War I during the Greco-Turkish War, local Turkish resistance was answered with terror against the local Muslims. Killings, rapes, and village burnings were a standard pattern of the Greek occupation. The Greeks advanced all the way to Central Anatolia. After the Turkish attack in 1922, the retreating Greek army probably committed its largest campaign of destruction.[citation needed] Norman M. Naimark noted that "the Greek retreat was even more devastating for the local population than the occupation".[37] During its retreat, towns and villages were burned as part of a scorched earth policy, accompanied with massacres and rapes. During this war, a part of Western Anatolia was destroyed, large towns such as Manisa, Salihli together with many villages being burned.[38]

Also during the Greek occupation, Greek troops and local Greeks, Armenian, and Circassian groups committed the Yalova Peninsula Massacres in early 1921against the Turkish and Muslim population of the Gemlik-Yalova peninsula.[39] These resulted in the deaths of thousands of the local Muslim populace, as well as the total or nearly total burning of tens of towns and massacres of their populations.[40] Number of casualties is not exactly known. Statements gathered by Ottoman official, reveal a relatevely low number of causalties: based on the Ottoman enquiry to which 177 survivors responded, only 35 were reported as killed, wounded or beaten or missing. This is also in accordance with Toynbee's accounts that one to two murders were enough to drive out the population.[41] Another source estimates that barely 1.500 Muslims out of 7.000 survived in the environment of Yalova.[42]

The peace after the Greco–Turkish War resulted in a mutual population exchange between Greece and Turkey, between the two countries. As a result the Muslim population of Greece, with the exception of Western Thrace, was relocated to Turkey.[43]

Total casualties

Total Muslim deaths and refugees during these centuries are estimated to be several millions.[44]

According to Justin McCarthy, between the years 1821–1922, from the beginning of the Greek War of Independence to the end of the Ottoman Empire, five million Muslims were driven from their lands and another five and one-half million died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation or disease.[1] According to Michael Mann all the death figures in the Balkans are contested and McCarthy is seen in this discussion as as a scholar on the Turkish side.[45] In the discussion about the Armenian Genocide, he is considered as the leading pro-Turkish scholar.[46][47] McCarthy's book The Ottoman Turks has according to Somel an "excessively pro-Turkish attitude".[48] According to Michael Mann, even if McCarthy's estimates would be reduced by half it would still be a horrific number.[45]

Destruction of Muslim heritage

During their long rule the Ottomans had built numerous mosques, madrasas, caravanserais, bathouses and other types of buildings. Around 20,000 buildings of all sizes have been documented.[49] However very few survives of this Ottoman heritage in most of the Balkan countries.[50] Most of the Ottoman era mosques of the Balkans have been destroyed and from the ones still standing at least their minarets. Before the Habsburg conquest, Osijek had 8-10 mosques none of which remain today.[51] Of the 166 Madrasas in the Ottoman Balkans in the 17th century only 8 remain and 5 of them are near Edirne.[49] The amount of destruction 95-98%.[49] The same is also valid for other types of buildings, such as markethalls, caravanserais and baths.[49] From a chain of caravanserais across the Balkans only one is preserved while there are vague ruins of four others.[49] There were in the area of Negroponte in 1521: 34 large and small mosques, 6 hamams, 10 schools, 6 dervish convents. Today only the ruin of one hamam remains.[49]


Destruction of Ottoman mosques.[49]
Town During Ottoman rule Still standing
Shumen 40 3
Serres 60 3
Belgrade <100 1
Sofia <100 2
Ruse 36 1

Commemoration

There exists literature in Turkey dealing with these events, but outside of Turkey, the events are largely unknown to the world public.

Memorials

There is an monument in Iğdır remembering the Muslim victims of World War I.

References

  1. ^ a b McCarthy, Justin Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922, Darwin Press Incorporated, 1996, ISBN 0-87850-094-4, Chapter one, The land to be lost, p. 1.
  2. ^ Malik, Maleiha (13 September 2013). ANTI-MUSLIM PREJUDICE - MALIK: Past and Present. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-317-98898-4. Christian irregulars in the Austrian or Venetian service, and insurgent highlanders of Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania meanwhile threw off 'the Turkish yoke' by marauding, mostly against the Muslim Slavs.
  3. ^ Mitzen, Jennifer (10 September 2013). Power in Concert: The Nineteenth-Century Origins of Global Governance. University of Chicago Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-226-06025-5. Peter the Great called on Balkan subjects to revolt in 1711; Catherine the Great encouraged a Greek rebellion in 1770 and
  4. ^ a b Nielsen, Jørgen; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet (19 September 2013). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe. BRILL. p. 165. ISBN 978-90-04-25586-9. According to reliable estimates, during the 16th century around one fourth of the population in Slavonia, ..., were Muslims, living mostly in towns. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "NielsenAkgönül2013" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ Wilson, Peter (1 November 2002). German Armies: War and German Society, 1648-1806. Routledge. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-135-37053-4. By 1699 130,000 Slavonian and Croatian Muslims had been driven to Ottoman Bosnia by the advancing imperialists.
  6. ^ Velikonja, Mitja (5 February 2003). Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3. ...in Hungary, Croatia, Dalmatia, Slavonia, and Lika after the Habsburg-Ottoman war of 1683-99. It was the first example in this area of cleansing the Muslim population that also "enjoyed the benediction of Catholic church".
  7. ^ Malik, Maleiha (13 September 2013). ANTI-MUSLIM PREJUDICE - MALIK: Past and Present. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-317-98898-4. Leopold I...not consider extending any privileges to the Muslims. They therefore fled to Bosnia, Herzegovina, Serbia and further southeast, fanning anti-Christian sentiments among their coreligionists.
  8. ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1 January 2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. p. 466. ISBN 90-04-15388-8. ... a period during which relations between the Muslim and non-Muslim populations of the region deteriorated sharply
  9. ^ Velikonja, Mitja (5 February 2003). Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3. The entire Slavonian Muslim population fled south into Bosnia after the Treaty of Karlovac in 1699.
  10. ^ Ingrao, Charles W.; Samardžić, Nikola; Pesalj, Jovan (2011). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-55753-594-8. Many more Muslim families that had lived in Slavonia moved to Posavina after 1699 and during the first two decades of the eighteenth
  11. ^ Ingrao, Charles W.; Samardžić, Nikola; Pesalj, Jovan (2011). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-55753-594-8.
  12. ^ Velikonja, Mitja (5 February 2003). Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3. As in all other reconquered territories, the Muslims (who for example comprised two-thirds of the population in Lika) in Croatia were either converted to Catholicism or banished.
  13. ^ Mohorovičić, Andro (1994). Architecture in Croatia: Architecture and Town Planning. Croatian Academy of Science and Arts. p. 114. ISBN 978-953-0-31657-7. With the Turks gone, almost all the Turkish buildings on Croatian area were destroyed.
  14. ^ Black, Jeremy (12 February 2007). European Warfare in a Global Context, 1660–1815. Routledge. p. 192. ISBN 978-1-134-15922-2. The Muslim population of Montenegro was massacred by the Serbs.
  15. ^ Király, Béla K.; Rothenberg, Gunther Erich (1982). War and Society in East Central Europe: East Central European Society and War in the Pre-Revolutonary Eighteenth Century. Brooklyn College Press : distributed by Columbia University Press. p. 279. ISBN 978-0-930888-19-0. Even the precise date of the bloody affair is not certain, but most historians have accepted 1709 as the year of the assault
  16. ^ Tanner, Arno (2004). The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe. East-West Books. p. 22. ISBN 9789529168088.
  17. ^ J. Buckley, Cynthia (2008). Migration, Homeland, and Belonging in Eurasia. Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 230. ISBN 9780801890758.
  18. ^ Minahan, James (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 446. ISBN 9780313321092.
  19. ^ M. A. Gualtieri, Sarah (2009). etween Arab and White: Race and Ethnicity in the Early Syrian American Diaspora. University of California Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780520255326.
  20. ^ J. Kaufman, Stuart (2001). Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Cornell University Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780801487361.
  21. ^ Minahan, James (2000). One Europe, Many Nations. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 615. ISBN 9780313309847.
  22. ^ Pinson, Mark (1996). The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina: Their Historic Development from the Middle Ages to the Dissolution of Yugoslavia. Harvard CMES. p. 73. ISBN 9780932885128.
  23. ^ Grandits, Hannes (2011). Conflicting Loyalties in the Balkans: The Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire and Nation-Building. I.B.Tauris. p. 208. ISBN 9781848854772.
  24. ^ a b c d e Lieberman, Benjamin (2013). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 4, 6, 31, 34. ISBN 9781442230385.
  25. ^ Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2012). Old and New Islam in Greece: From Historical Minorities to Immigrant Newcomers. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 70. ISBN 9789004221529.
  26. ^ Arthur Howard,, Douglas (2001). The History of Turkey. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 67. ISBN 9780313307089.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  27. ^ Poulton, Hugh (1997). Muslim Identity and the Balkan State. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 55. ISBN 9781850652762.
  28. ^ Elsie, Robert (2010). Historical Dictionary of Kosovo. Scarecrow Press. p. XXXII. ISBN 9780810874831.
  29. ^ Méditerranée, Moyen-Orient deux siècles de relations internationales: Recherches en hommage à Jacques Thobie. Editions L'Harmattan. 2003. p. 138. ISBN 9782296325494.
  30. ^ a b Geoff Simons (2003). Libya and the West: From Independence to Lockerbie. I.B.Tauris. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-86064-988-2.
  31. ^ Ahrens, Geert-Hinrich (2007). Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia. Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 291. ISBN 9780801885570.
  32. ^ Neuburger, Mary (2004). The Orient Within: Muslim Minorities and the Negotiation of Nationhood in Modern Bulgaria. Cornell University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9780801441325.
  33. ^ Akçam, Taner (2012). The Young Turks' Crime against Humanity:. Princeton University Press,. p. 87. ISBN 9781400841844.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  34. ^ Horne, John (2013). War in Peace. Oxford University Press. pp. 173–177. ISBN 9780199686056.
  35. ^ a b c Levene, Mark (2013). Devastation. Oxford University Press. pp. 217, 218. ISBN 9780191505546.
  36. ^ J. Rummel, Rudolph (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 82, 83. ISBN 9783825840105.
  37. ^ Naimark 2002, p. 46.
  38. ^ Chenoweth, Erica (2010). Rethinking Violence: States and Non-state Actors in Conflict. MIT Press. pp. 48, 49. ISBN 9780262014205.
  39. ^ Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1970). The Western Question in Greece and Turkey:A Study in the Contact of Civilizations. H. Fertig, originally: University of California. pp. 283–284. 'The members of the Commission consider that, in the part of the kazas of Yalova and Guemlek occupied by the Greek army, there is a systematic plan of destruction of Turkish villages and extinction of the Moslem population. This plan is being carried out by Greek and Armenian bands, which appear to operate under Greek instructions and sometimes even with the assistance of detachments of regular troops
  40. ^ "Arşiv Belgelerine Göre Balkanlar'da ve Anadolu'da Yunan Mezâlimi 2". Scribd.com. 2011-01-03. Retrieved 2013-09-07.
  41. ^ Gingeras, Ryan (2009). Sorrowful Shores:Violence, Ethnicity, and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1912-1923. Oxford University Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780191609794. In total only thirty-five were reported to have been killed, wounded, beaten, or missing. This is in line with the observations of Arnold Toynbee, who declared that one to two murders were sufficient to drive away the population of a village.
  42. ^ McNeill, William H. (1989). Arnold J. Toynbee: A Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199923397. To protect their flanks from harassment, Greek military authorities then encouraged irregular bands of armed men to attack and destroy Turkish populations of the region they proposed to abandon. By the time the Red Crescent vessel arrived at Yalova from Constantinople in the last week of May, fourteen out of sixteen villages in that town's immediate hinterland had been destroyed, and there were only 1500 survivors from the 7000 Moslems who had been living in these communities.
  43. ^ Hirschon, ed. by Renée (2003). Crossing the Aegean : an appraisal of the 1923 compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey (1. publ. ed.). New York, NY [u.a.]: Berghahn Books. ISBN 9781571817679. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  44. ^ J. Gibney, Matthew (2005). Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 437. ISBN 9781576077962.
  45. ^ a b "In the Balkans all statistics of death remain contested. Most of the following figures derive from McCarthy (1995: 1, 91, 162-4, 339), who is often viewed as a scholar on the Turkish side of the debate. Yet even if we reduced his figures by as 50 percent, they would still horrify." Michael Mann, The dark side of democracy: explaining ethnic cleansing, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0521538548, p. 112.
  46. ^ Door Michael M. Gunter. Armenian History and the Question of Genocide. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, p. 127
  47. ^ Door Natasha May Azarian. The Seeds of Memory: Narrative Renditions of the Armenian Genocide Across. ProQuest, 2007, p. 14: "...the leading Pro-Turkish academic"
  48. ^ Door Selcuk Aksin Somel. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire. Scarecrow Press, 2003, p. 336
  49. ^ a b c d e f g Kiel, Machiel (1990). Studies on the Ottoman Architecture of the Balkans. University of Michigan. pp. XI, X, XIV, XV. ISBN 9780860782766.
  50. ^ Meskell, Lynn (2001). Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. Routledge. pp. 121, 122. ISBN 9781134643905.
  51. ^ Mojzes, Paul (2011). Balkan Genocides: Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the Twentieth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 22. ISBN 9781442206632.

Sources

  • Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw,History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 9780521291668
  • Alan W. Fisher, The Crimean Tatars, Hoover Press, 1978, ISBN 9780817966638
  • Walter Richmond,The Circassian Genocide, Rutgers University Press, 2013, ISBN 9780813560694
  • Arno Tanner,The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe, East-West Books, 2004, ISBN 9789529168088
  • Alexander Laban Hinton, Thomas La Pointe,Hidden Genocides, Douglas Irvin-Erickson, Rutgers University Press, 2013, ISBN 9780813561646
  • Erica Chenoweth, Adria Lawrence,Rethinking Violence, MIT Press, 2010, ISBN 9780262014205
  • Klejda Mulaj,Politics of Ethnic Cleansing, Lexington Books, 2008, ISBN 9780739146675
  • John K. Cox, The History of Serbia, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, ISBN 9780313312908
  • Igor Despot,The Balkan Wars in the Eyes of the Warring Parties, iUniverse, 2012, ISBN 9781475947052
  • Douglas Arthur Howard, The History of Turkey, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 9780313307089
  • Benjamin Lieberman,Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2013, ISBN 9781442230385
  • John Joseph,Muslim-Christian Relations and Inter-Christian Rivalries, SUNY Press, 1983, ISBN 9780873956000
  • Victor Roudometof, Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 9780313319495
  • Charles Jelavich,The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804-1920, University of Washington Press, 1986, ISBN 9780295803609
  • Suraiya Faroqhi,The Cambridge History of Turkey, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 9780521620956
  • Ryan Gingeras, Sorrowful Shores, Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 9780191609794
  • Ugur Ümit Üngör, The Making of Modern Turkey, Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 9780191640766
  • Stanley Elphinstone Kerr,The Lions of Marash, SUNY Press, 1973, ISBN 9781438408828
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