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[[File:Archean Felsic Volcanism-01.png|thumb|600x600px|Fig. 1. A schematic diagram showing the formation environment of Archean felsic volcanic rocks. Modified from Giles (1980).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giles|first=Christopher William|date=1980|title=A comparative study of Archaean and Proterozoic felsic volcanic associations in Southern Australia / by Chris W. Giles|url=https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/handle/2440/20805|journal=|language=en|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> |alt=]]
[[File:Archean Felsic Volcanism-01.png|thumb|300x300px|'''[DRAFTING]''' Fig. 1. An animation of Archean felsic volcanism. ]]
'''Archean felsic volcanic rocks''' are [[felsic]] [[Volcanic rock|volcanic rocks]] that have silica content of 62–78% and formed in the [[Archean|Archean Eon]] (4 to 2.5 billion years ago).<ref>Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.M., Gibbard, P.L., Fan, J.-X. (2013). The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart. Episodes 36, 199-204. </ref> Archean felsic volcanics are distributed only in the preserved Archean [[Greenstone belt|greenstone belts]], where deformed [[Volcano-sedimentary sequence|sequences of volcanic-sedimentary rocks]] are common.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Condie|first=Kent C.|date=1993|title=Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust: Contrasting results from surface samples and shales|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-e|journal=Chemical Geology|volume=104|issue=1-4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-e|issn=0009-2541|via=}}</ref><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last=Szilas|first=Kristoffer|date=2018|title=A Geochemical Overview of Mid-Archaean Metavolcanic Rocks from Southwest Greenland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8070266|journal=Geosciences|volume=8|issue=7|pages=266|doi=10.3390/geosciences8070266|issn=2076-3263|via=}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Halla|first=J|last2=Whitehouse|first2=M. J.|last3=Ahmad|first3=T.|last4=Bagai|first4=Z.|date=2017|title=Archaean granitoids: an overview and significance from a tectonic perspective|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/449/1/1|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|language=en|volume=449|issue=1|pages=1–18|doi=10.1144/SP449.10|issn=0305-8719|via=}}</ref> Before 2.5 billion years ago, plate tectonics may have not yet started. <ref>{{Cite journal|last=William|first=Giles, Christopher|date=1980|title=A comparative study of Archaean and Proterozoic felsic volcanic associations in Southern Australia / by Chris W. Giles|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2440/20805|language=en}}</ref>
'''Archean felsic volcanic rocks''' are [[felsic]] [[Volcanic rock|volcanic rocks]] that have silica content of 62–78% and formed in the [[Archean|Archean Eon]] (4 to 2.5 billion years ago).<ref>Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.M., Gibbard, P.L., Fan, J.-X. (2013). The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart. Episodes 36, 199-204. </ref> As the Archean Earth is two or three time hotter than the present, formation of felsic volcanic rocks may differ from the modern [[plate tectonics]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Condie|first=Kent C.|date=1993|title=Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust: Contrasting results from surface samples and shales|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-e|journal=Chemical Geology|volume=104|issue=1-4|pages=1–37|doi=10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-e|issn=0009-2541|via=}}</ref><ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Halla|first=J|last2=Whitehouse|first2=M. J.|last3=Ahmad|first3=T.|last4=Bagai|first4=Z.|date=2017|title=Archaean granitoids: an overview and significance from a tectonic perspective|url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/449/1/1|journal=Geological Society, London, Special Publications|language=en|volume=449|issue=1|pages=1–18|doi=10.1144/SP449.10|issn=0305-8719|via=}}</ref><ref name=":18" />


Felsic volcanics are rare in the [[early Earth]] and only contribute to less 1/5 of rocks in the Archean greenstone belts worldwide.<ref name=":3" />
Archean felsic volcanic rocks are distributed only in the preserved Archean [[Greenstone belt|greenstone belts]], where deformed [[Volcano-sedimentary sequence|sequences of volcanic-sedimentary rocks]] are common.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":26" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|last=Szilas|first=Kristoffer|date=2018|title=A Geochemical Overview of Mid-Archaean Metavolcanic Rocks from Southwest Greenland|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences8070266|journal=Geosciences|volume=8|issue=7|pages=266|doi=10.3390/geosciences8070266|issn=2076-3263|via=}}</ref> Felsic volcanic rocks are rare in the [[early Earth]] and only contribute to less 1/5 of rocks in the Archean greenstone belts worldwide.<ref name=":3" />


Archean felsic [[Volcanism|volcanic activities]] commonly occur in [[Submarine volcano|submarine]] environments<ref name=":18" />. The composition of Archean felsic volcanics are equivalent to a spectrum between [[dacite]] and [[rhyolite]].<ref name=":26" /> They can be distinguished by their [[Mineralogy|mineral assemblages]], [[Geochemistry|rock chemistry]] and [[Stratigraphy|rock layer relationship]] in the sequences.<ref name=":18" />
Archean felsic [[Volcanism|volcanic activities]] commonly occur in [[Submarine volcano|submarine]] environments<ref name=":18" />. The composition of Archean felsic volcanic rocks are equivalent to a spectrum between [[dacite]] and [[rhyolite]].<ref name=":26" /> They can be distinguished by their [[Mineralogy|mineral assemblages]], [[Geochemistry|rock chemistry]] and [[Stratigraphy|rock layer relationship]] in the sequences.<ref name=":18" />


Archean felsic volcanics are important to reconstruct Archean geological environments.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Van Kranendonk|first=Martin J.|last2=Hugh Smithies|first2=R.|last3=Hickman|first3=Arthur H.|last4=Wingate|first4=Michael T.D.|last5=Bodorkos|first5=Simon|date=2010|title=Evidence for Mesoarchean (∼3.2Ga) rifting of the Pilbara Craton: The missing link in an early Precambrian Wilson cycle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2009.11.007|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=177|issue=1-2|pages=145–161|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2009.11.007|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Thorpe|first=R.I.|last2=Hickman|first2=A.H.|last3=Davis|first3=D.W.|last4=Mortensen|first4=J.K.|last5=Trendall|first5=A.F.|date=1992|title=U-Pb zircon geochronology of Archaean felsic units in the Marble Bar region, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(92)90100-3|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=56|issue=3-4|pages=169–189|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(92)90100-3|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> It is utilised to [[Geochronology|date the timing of geological events]] and match distant rock units in separated Archean [[Craton|cratons]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Agangi|first=Andrea|last2=Hofmann|first2=Axel|last3=Elburg|first3=Marlina A.|date=2018|title=A review of Palaeoarchaean felsic volcanism in the eastern Kaapvaal craton: Linking plutonic and volcanic records|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.08.003|journal=Geoscience Frontiers|volume=9|issue=3|pages=667–688|doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2017.08.003|issn=1674-9871|via=}}</ref>
Archean felsic volcanic rocks are important to reconstruct Archean geological environments.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Van Kranendonk|first=Martin J.|last2=Hugh Smithies|first2=R.|last3=Hickman|first3=Arthur H.|last4=Wingate|first4=Michael T.D.|last5=Bodorkos|first5=Simon|date=2010|title=Evidence for Mesoarchean (∼3.2Ga) rifting of the Pilbara Craton: The missing link in an early Precambrian Wilson cycle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2009.11.007|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=177|issue=1-2|pages=145–161|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2009.11.007|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Thorpe|first=R.I.|last2=Hickman|first2=A.H.|last3=Davis|first3=D.W.|last4=Mortensen|first4=J.K.|last5=Trendall|first5=A.F.|date=1992|title=U-Pb zircon geochronology of Archaean felsic units in the Marble Bar region, Pilbara Craton, Western Australia|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(92)90100-3|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=56|issue=3-4|pages=169–189|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(92)90100-3|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> It is utilised to [[Geochronology|date the timing of geological events]] and match distant rock units in separated Archean [[Craton|cratons]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Agangi|first=Andrea|last2=Hofmann|first2=Axel|last3=Elburg|first3=Marlina A.|date=2018|title=A review of Palaeoarchaean felsic volcanism in the eastern Kaapvaal craton: Linking plutonic and volcanic records|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2017.08.003|journal=Geoscience Frontiers|volume=9|issue=3|pages=667–688|doi=10.1016/j.gsf.2017.08.003|issn=1674-9871|via=}}</ref>


Felsic [[Granitoid|granitoids]] are the most prevalent rock type in Archean terranes.<ref name=":3" /> The intrusive felsic igneous rocks include TTG suites ([[Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite]]) that contributes over half portion of Archean cratons.<ref name=":3" /> They have implications in finding how the felsic volcanics were formed and related to the granitoids.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Paradis|first=Suzanne|last2=Ludden|first2=John|last3=Gélinas|first3=Léopold|date=1988|title=Evidence for contrasting compositional spectra in comagmatic intrusive and extrusive rocks of the late Archean Blake River Group, Abitibi, Quebec|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e88-013|journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences|volume=25|issue=1|pages=134–144|doi=10.1139/e88-013|issn=0008-4077|via=}}</ref>
Felsic [[Granitoid|granitoids]] are the most prevalent rock type in Archean terranes.<ref name=":3" /> The intrusive felsic igneous rocks include TTG suites ([[Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite]]) that contributes over half portion of Archean cratons.<ref name=":3" /> They have implications in finding how the felsic volcanic rocks were formed and related to the granitoids.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Paradis|first=Suzanne|last2=Ludden|first2=John|last3=Gélinas|first3=Léopold|date=1988|title=Evidence for contrasting compositional spectra in comagmatic intrusive and extrusive rocks of the late Archean Blake River Group, Abitibi, Quebec|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e88-013|journal=Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences|volume=25|issue=1|pages=134–144|doi=10.1139/e88-013|issn=0008-4077|via=}}</ref>


== Occurrence ==
== Occurrence ==
Archean felsic volcanic rocks are only preserved in Archean [[Craton|cratons]].<ref name=":25" /> A craton is an ancient stable blocks of continents.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=W.|first=Bleeker,|last2=W.|first2=Davis, B.|date=2004|title=What is a craton? How many are there? How do they relate? And how did they form?|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AGUSM.T41C..01B|journal=AGU Spring Meeting Abstracts|language=en|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> The platform has survived from [[plate tectonics]] that pull apart, collide or tear continents. <ref name=":30" /> The volcanic rocks particularly reflects felsic [[volcanism]] during Archean. On average, the volcanics only contribute to ~15-20% in volcanic rocks of greenstone belts.<ref name=":3" /> ''See Figure 2 and Table 1 for Examples of Archean felsic volcanics occurrence.''
Archean felsic volcanic rocks are only preserved in Archean [[Craton|cratons]].<ref name=":25" /> A craton is an ancient stable blocks of continents.<ref name=":30">{{Cite journal|last=W.|first=Bleeker,|last2=W.|first2=Davis, B.|date=2004|title=What is a craton? How many are there? How do they relate? And how did they form?|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004AGUSM.T41C..01B|journal=AGU Spring Meeting Abstracts|language=en|volume=|pages=|via=}}</ref> The platform has survived from [[plate tectonics]] that pull apart, collide or tear continents.<ref name=":30" /> The volcanic rocks particularly reflects felsic [[volcanism]] during Archean. On average, the volcanic rocks only contribute to ~15-20% in volcanic rocks of greenstone belts.<ref name=":3" /> ''See Figure 2 and Table 1 for Examples of Archean felsic volcanic rocks occurrence.''


All Archean felsic volcanics are distributed in greenstone belts.<ref name=":3" /> In Archean cratons, greenstone belts represent [[Supracrustal rock|supracrustal rocks]] formed above the Earth's crust.<ref name=":20" /> It is dominated by [[Volcano-sedimentary sequence|volcano-sedimentary sequences]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Manikyamba|first=C.|last2=Ganguly|first2=Sohini|last3=Santosh|first3=M.|last4=Subramanyam|first4=K.S.V.|date=2017|title=Volcano-sedimentary and metallogenic records of the Dharwar greenstone terranes, India: Window to Archean plate tectonics, continent growth, and mineral endowment|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1342937X17300412|journal=Gondwana Research|volume=50|pages=38–66|doi=10.1016/j.gr.2017.06.005|issn=1342-937X|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Tim E.|last2=Brown|first2=Michael|last3=Goodenough|first3=Kathryn M.|last4=Clark|first4=Chris|last5=Kinny|first5=Peter D.|last6=White|first6=Richard W.|date=2016|title=Subduction or sagduction? Ambiguity in constraining the origin of ultramafic–mafic bodies in the Archean crust of NW Scotland|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301926816302844|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=283|pages=89–105|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2016.07.013|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> Some volcanic sequences can be several kilometers thick, such as the [[Warrawoona Group]] of [[Eastern Pilbara Craton|Eastern Pibara Craton]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=DiMarco|first=Michael J.|last2=Lowe|first2=Donald R.|date=1989|title=Stratigraphy and sedimentology of an early Archean felsic volcanic sequence, eastern Pilbara Block, Western Australia, with special reference to the Duffer Formation and implications for crustal evolution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(89)90080-6|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=44|issue=2|pages=147–169|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(89)90080-6|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Barley|first=M.E.|date=1993|title=Volcanic, sedimentary and tectonostratigraphic environments of the ∼3.46 Ga Warrawoona Megasequence: a review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0301926893900443|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=60|issue=1-4|pages=47–67|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(93)90044-3|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> However, [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] and [[mafic]] units make up substantial volume of the volcanic units.<ref name=":10" /> The remaining volcanic units are extensive but thin felsic volcanic layers, such as Duffer Formation of the Warrawoona Group.<ref name=":0" /> The greenstone belts may be subsequently intruded by dome-shaped [[Magma chamber|magma chambers]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Kerrich|first=Robert|last2=Polat|first2=Ali|date=2006|title=Archean greenstone-tonalite duality: Thermochemical mantle convection models or plate tectonics in the early Earth global dynamics?|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195105006323|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=415|issue=1-4|pages=141–165|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2005.12.004|issn=0040-1951|via=}}</ref> The intrusion would deform the felsic volcanic rocks. <ref name=":26" />
All Archean felsic volcanic rocks are distributed in greenstone belts.<ref name=":3" /> In Archean cratons, greenstone belts represent [[Supracrustal rock|supracrustal rocks]] formed above the Earth's crust.<ref name=":20" /> It is dominated by [[Volcano-sedimentary sequence|volcano-sedimentary sequences]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Manikyamba|first=C.|last2=Ganguly|first2=Sohini|last3=Santosh|first3=M.|last4=Subramanyam|first4=K.S.V.|date=2017|title=Volcano-sedimentary and metallogenic records of the Dharwar greenstone terranes, India: Window to Archean plate tectonics, continent growth, and mineral endowment|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1342937X17300412|journal=Gondwana Research|volume=50|pages=38–66|doi=10.1016/j.gr.2017.06.005|issn=1342-937X|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Tim E.|last2=Brown|first2=Michael|last3=Goodenough|first3=Kathryn M.|last4=Clark|first4=Chris|last5=Kinny|first5=Peter D.|last6=White|first6=Richard W.|date=2016|title=Subduction or sagduction? Ambiguity in constraining the origin of ultramafic–mafic bodies in the Archean crust of NW Scotland|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301926816302844|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=283|pages=89–105|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2016.07.013|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> Some volcanic sequences can be several kilometers thick, such as the [[Warrawoona Group]] of [[Eastern Pilbara Craton|Eastern Pibara Craton]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=DiMarco|first=Michael J.|last2=Lowe|first2=Donald R.|date=1989|title=Stratigraphy and sedimentology of an early Archean felsic volcanic sequence, eastern Pilbara Block, Western Australia, with special reference to the Duffer Formation and implications for crustal evolution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(89)90080-6|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=44|issue=2|pages=147–169|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(89)90080-6|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref><ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Barley|first=M.E.|date=1993|title=Volcanic, sedimentary and tectonostratigraphic environments of the ∼3.46 Ga Warrawoona Megasequence: a review|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0301926893900443|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=60|issue=1-4|pages=47–67|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(93)90044-3|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref> However, [[Ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] and [[mafic]] units make up substantial volume of the volcanic units.<ref name=":10" /> The remaining volcanic units are extensive but thin felsic volcanic layers, such as Duffer Formation of the Warrawoona Group.<ref name=":0" /> The greenstone belts may be subsequently intruded by dome-shaped [[Magma chamber|magma chambers]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Kerrich|first=Robert|last2=Polat|first2=Ali|date=2006|title=Archean greenstone-tonalite duality: Thermochemical mantle convection models or plate tectonics in the early Earth global dynamics?|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0040195105006323|journal=Tectonophysics|volume=415|issue=1-4|pages=141–165|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2005.12.004|issn=0040-1951|via=}}</ref> The intrusion would deform the felsic volcanic rocks. <ref name=":26" />


Modern volcanic processes along with its products are observed and recorded.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/961300385|title=Volcanic successions modern and ancient: a geological approach to processes, products and successions|last=V.|first=Cas, R. A.F Wright, J.|date=1996|publisher=Chapman and Hall|year=|isbn=0412446405|location=|pages=|oclc=961300385}}</ref> Yet, [[erosion]] constantly removes surface materials from the source. So it may lead to sampling bias when studying the Archean supracrustal rocks back in deep time.<ref name=":3" />
Modern volcanic processes along with its products are observed and recorded.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/961300385|title=Volcanic successions modern and ancient: a geological approach to processes, products and successions|last=V.|first=Cas, R. A.F Wright, J.|date=1996|publisher=Chapman and Hall|year=|isbn=0412446405|location=|pages=|oclc=961300385}}</ref> Yet, [[erosion]] constantly removes surface materials from the source. So it may lead to sampling bias when studying the Archean supracrustal rocks back in deep time.<ref name=":3" />
{| class="wikitable sortable"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Table 1. Examples of Archean felsic volcanics occurrence in greenstone belts
|+Table 1. Examples of Archean felsic volcanic rocks occurrence in greenstone belts
!Felsic volcanics units/localities
!Felsic volcanic units/localities
!Age (Ma)
!Age (Ma)
!Greenstone belt
!Greenstone belt
Line 36: Line 36:
|Australia
|Australia
|-
|-
|Kallehadlu Felsic volcanics<ref name=":2" />
|Kallehadlu Felsic Volcanics<ref name=":2" />
|2677 ± 2<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayananda|first=M.|last2=Peucat|first2=J.-J.|last3=Chardon|first3=D.|last4=Rao|first4=B. Krishna|last5=Fanning|first5=C.M.|last6=Corfu|first6=F.|date=2013|title=Neoarchean greenstone volcanism and continental growth, Dharwar craton, southern India: Constraints from SIMS U–Pb zircon geochronology and Nd isotopes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2012.05.002|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=227|pages=55–76|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2012.05.002|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref>
|2677 ± 2<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jayananda|first=M.|last2=Peucat|first2=J.-J.|last3=Chardon|first3=D.|last4=Rao|first4=B. Krishna|last5=Fanning|first5=C.M.|last6=Corfu|first6=F.|date=2013|title=Neoarchean greenstone volcanism and continental growth, Dharwar craton, southern India: Constraints from SIMS U–Pb zircon geochronology and Nd isotopes|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2012.05.002|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=227|pages=55–76|doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2012.05.002|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref>
|Gadag-Chitradurga
|Gadag-Chitradurga
Line 84: Line 84:
|South Africa
|South Africa
|}
|}
[[File:AFVs Distribution.png|thumb|800x800px|Fig. 2. A map showing examples greenstone belts with documented Archean Felsic Volcanics localities. See citations in Table 1. |alt=|center]]
[[File:AFVs Distribution.png|thumb|800x800px|Fig. 2. A map showing examples greenstone belts with documented Archean felsic volcanic rocks localities. See citations in Table 1. |alt=|center]]
== Characteristics ==
== Characteristics ==


=== Mineralogy and texture ===
=== Mineralogy and texture ===
By meaning "[[felsic]]", the volcanic rocks are rich in feldspar and quartz. A typical mineral assemblage is [[quartz]] + [[feldspar]] ([[albite]]/[[oligoclase]]) + [[amphibole]] ([[Chlorite group|chlorite]]) + [[Mica|micas]] ([[biotite]] and/or [[muscovite]]).<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/221544061|title=Eruptive environment and geochemistry of Archaean ultramafic, mafic and felsic volcanic rocks of the eastern Yilgarn Craton : IAVCEI, Canberra 1993 : excursion guide|last=Morris|first=P. A.|last2=Barnes|first2=S. J.|last3=Hill|first3=R. E. T.|publisher=Australian Geological Survey Organisation|year=1993|isbn=064219663X|location=Australia|pages=6|oclc=221544061}}</ref> The mineralogy seems similar with modern rhyolites and dacites. Volcanics are [[Aphanite|aphanitic]], whereas some exhibits [[porphyritic]] texture that certain larger minerals ([[Phenocryst|phenocrysts]]) are visible by eyes.
By meaning "[[felsic]]", the volcanic rocks are rich in feldspar and quartz. A typical mineral assemblage is [[quartz]] + [[feldspar]] ([[albite]]/[[oligoclase]]) + [[amphibole]] ([[Chlorite group|chlorite]]) + [[Mica|micas]] ([[biotite]] and/or [[muscovite]]).<ref name=":16">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/221544061|title=Eruptive environment and geochemistry of Archaean ultramafic, mafic and felsic volcanic rocks of the eastern Yilgarn Craton : IAVCEI, Canberra 1993 : excursion guide|last=Morris|first=P. A.|last2=Barnes|first2=S. J.|last3=Hill|first3=R. E. T.|publisher=Australian Geological Survey Organisation|year=1993|isbn=064219663X|location=Australia|pages=6|oclc=221544061}}</ref> The mineralogy seems similar with modern rhyolites and dacites. The volcanics are [[Aphanite|aphanitic]], whereas some exhibits [[porphyritic]] texture that certain larger minerals ([[Phenocryst|phenocrysts]]) are visible by eyes.
[[File:Archean Fiamme.png|thumb|404x404px|Fig. 3. Archean felsic volcanic rocks have particular characteristic structure. Some are tuffs, formed by volcanic materials from eruption. A significant structure is fiamme, which are recrystallised quartz with flame-like ending points. The illustration is fiamme in Archean Woman Lake rhyolitic tuff, Superior Province, Canada. Adopted and modified from photograph of Thurston (1980)<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=P. C.|date=1980|title=Subaerial volcanism in the Archean Uchi-Confederation volcanic belt|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(80)90024-8|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=12|issue=1-4|pages=79–98|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(80)90024-8|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref>. |alt=]]
[[File:Archean Fiamme.png|thumb|404x404px|Fig. 3. Archean felsic volcanic rocks have particular characteristic structure. Some are tuffs, formed by volcanic materials from eruption. A significant structure is fiamme, which are recrystallised quartz with flame-like ending points. The illustration is fiamme in Archean Woman Lake rhyolitic tuff, Superior Province, Canada. Adopted and modified from photograph of Thurston (1980)<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Thurston|first=P. C.|date=1980|title=Subaerial volcanism in the Archean Uchi-Confederation volcanic belt|url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(80)90024-8|journal=Precambrian Research|volume=12|issue=1-4|pages=79–98|doi=10.1016/0301-9268(80)90024-8|issn=0301-9268|via=}}</ref>. |alt=]]
Felsic volcanics also include felsic [[tuff]] that was formed when [[tephra]] was consolidated.<ref name=":0" /> It is composed of [[volcanic ash]], [[Volcanic glass|glass shards]] and [[Lithic fragment (geology)|lithic fragments]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":17" /> Reported [[Eutaxitic texture|eutaxitic]] tuff from Superior Province, Canada (Figure 3)<ref name=":17" />, contains lenticular [[fiamme]]. When hot [[pumice]] deposits rapidly, it is [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallised]] and [[Welding (geology)|welded]] into quartz with flame-like ending tips.<ref name=":17" /> This texture represents a hot vapour-phase emplacement of the fragmented volcanic materials on the Earth's surface.<ref name=":17" />
Felsic volcanic rocks also include felsic [[tuff]] that was formed when [[tephra]] was consolidated.<ref name=":0" /> It is composed of [[volcanic ash]], [[Volcanic glass|glass shards]] and [[Lithic fragment (geology)|lithic fragments]].<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":17" /> Reported [[Eutaxitic texture|eutaxitic]] tuff from Superior Province, Canada (Figure 3)<ref name=":17" />, contains lenticular [[fiamme]]. When hot [[pumice]] deposits rapidly, it is [[Recrystallization (geology)|recrystallised]] and [[Welding (geology)|welded]] into quartz with flame-like ending tips.<ref name=":17" /> This texture represents a hot vapour-phase emplacement of the fragmented volcanic materials on the Earth's surface.<ref name=":17" />


[[Flow banding|Flow bands]] are present in massive, uniform felsic lava flow during the movement of lava.<ref name=":16" /> When the viscous lava flow encounters a surface, friction drags the mobile lava and forms internal banding.<ref name=":16" />
[[Flow banding|Flow bands]] are present in massive, uniform felsic lava flow during the movement of lava.<ref name=":16" /> When the viscous lava flow encounters a surface, friction drags the mobile lava and forms internal banding.<ref name=":16" />

Revision as of 13:41, 16 November 2018

Fig. 1. A schematic diagram showing the formation environment of Archean felsic volcanic rocks. Modified from Giles (1980).[1]

Archean felsic volcanic rocks are felsic volcanic rocks that have silica content of 62–78% and formed in the Archean Eon (4 to 2.5 billion years ago).[2] As the Archean Earth is two or three time hotter than the present, formation of felsic volcanic rocks may differ from the modern plate tectonics.[3][4][5]

Archean felsic volcanic rocks are distributed only in the preserved Archean greenstone belts, where deformed sequences of volcanic-sedimentary rocks are common.[3][4][6] Felsic volcanic rocks are rare in the early Earth and only contribute to less 1/5 of rocks in the Archean greenstone belts worldwide.[3]

Archean felsic volcanic activities commonly occur in submarine environments[5]. The composition of Archean felsic volcanic rocks are equivalent to a spectrum between dacite and rhyolite.[4] They can be distinguished by their mineral assemblages, rock chemistry and rock layer relationship in the sequences.[5]

Archean felsic volcanic rocks are important to reconstruct Archean geological environments.[7][8] It is utilised to date the timing of geological events and match distant rock units in separated Archean cratons.[9]

Felsic granitoids are the most prevalent rock type in Archean terranes.[3] The intrusive felsic igneous rocks include TTG suites (Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite) that contributes over half portion of Archean cratons.[3] They have implications in finding how the felsic volcanic rocks were formed and related to the granitoids.[9][10]

Occurrence

Archean felsic volcanic rocks are only preserved in Archean cratons.[6] A craton is an ancient stable blocks of continents.[11] The platform has survived from plate tectonics that pull apart, collide or tear continents.[11] The volcanic rocks particularly reflects felsic volcanism during Archean. On average, the volcanic rocks only contribute to ~15-20% in volcanic rocks of greenstone belts.[3] See Figure 2 and Table 1 for Examples of Archean felsic volcanic rocks occurrence.

All Archean felsic volcanic rocks are distributed in greenstone belts.[3] In Archean cratons, greenstone belts represent supracrustal rocks formed above the Earth's crust.[12] It is dominated by volcano-sedimentary sequences.[8][9][13][14] Some volcanic sequences can be several kilometers thick, such as the Warrawoona Group of Eastern Pibara Craton.[15][16] However, ultramafic and mafic units make up substantial volume of the volcanic units.[16] The remaining volcanic units are extensive but thin felsic volcanic layers, such as Duffer Formation of the Warrawoona Group.[15] The greenstone belts may be subsequently intruded by dome-shaped magma chambers.[17] The intrusion would deform the felsic volcanic rocks. [4]

Modern volcanic processes along with its products are observed and recorded.[18] Yet, erosion constantly removes surface materials from the source. So it may lead to sampling bias when studying the Archean supracrustal rocks back in deep time.[3]

Table 1. Examples of Archean felsic volcanic rocks occurrence in greenstone belts
Felsic volcanic units/localities Age (Ma) Greenstone belt Craton Country/Region
Duffer Formation[8][7] 3468 ± 2[19] Warrawoona Eastern Pilbara Craton Australia
Marda Tank[20] 2734 ± 3[21] Marda Volcanic Complex Yilgarn Craton Australia
Kallehadlu Felsic Volcanics[13] 2677 ± 2[22] Gadag-Chitradurga Dharwar Craton India
Kovero schist belt[23] 2754 ± 6[23] Ilomantsi Baltic Shield Finland
Sample SM/GR/93/57[24] 3710 ± 4[25] Isua North Atlantic Craton Greenland
Musk massive sulphide deposit[26] 2689.3 +2.4/-1.8[26] Yellowknife Slave Province Canada
Blake River Group[27][28] 2694.1±4.5[29] Abitibi Superior Province Canada
Upper Michipicoten volcanic sequences[30] 2696 ± 2[31] Wawa Superior Province Canada
Bulawayan Group[32] 2615 ± 28[32] Harare Zimbabwean Craton Zimbabwe
Onverwacht Group[33] 3445 ± 3[33] Barberton Kaapvaal Craton South Africa
Fig. 2. A map showing examples greenstone belts with documented Archean felsic volcanic rocks localities. See citations in Table 1.

Characteristics

Mineralogy and texture

By meaning "felsic", the volcanic rocks are rich in feldspar and quartz. A typical mineral assemblage is quartz + feldspar (albite/oligoclase) + amphibole (chlorite) + micas (biotite and/or muscovite).[34] The mineralogy seems similar with modern rhyolites and dacites. The volcanics are aphanitic, whereas some exhibits porphyritic texture that certain larger minerals (phenocrysts) are visible by eyes.

Fig. 3. Archean felsic volcanic rocks have particular characteristic structure. Some are tuffs, formed by volcanic materials from eruption. A significant structure is fiamme, which are recrystallised quartz with flame-like ending points. The illustration is fiamme in Archean Woman Lake rhyolitic tuff, Superior Province, Canada. Adopted and modified from photograph of Thurston (1980)[35].

Felsic volcanic rocks also include felsic tuff that was formed when tephra was consolidated.[15] It is composed of volcanic ash, glass shards and lithic fragments.[8][35] Reported eutaxitic tuff from Superior Province, Canada (Figure 3)[35], contains lenticular fiamme. When hot pumice deposits rapidly, it is recrystallised and welded into quartz with flame-like ending tips.[35] This texture represents a hot vapour-phase emplacement of the fragmented volcanic materials on the Earth's surface.[35]

Flow bands are present in massive, uniform felsic lava flow during the movement of lava.[34] When the viscous lava flow encounters a surface, friction drags the mobile lava and forms internal banding.[34]

Structureless hyaloclastite is commonly found in Archean felsic volcanics.[5][15][34][35] In submarine environments, water quenches and cools lava rapidly during volcanic eruption.[5] The flow is fragmented and form glassy volcanic breccia.[5]

Geochemistry

The assemblages of Archean felsic volcanics are calc-alkaline in the whole-rock composition.[30] Such magmatic series indicates fractional crystallisation of magma occurs during cooling. Low magnesium and iron content in the rock and forms dacite or rhyolite. Magma is a mixture of various minerals. When minerals crystallise from the molten magma, they are progressively removed and dissociated from the melt. The last proportion of the melt is strongly fractionated, causing richness in quartz and feldspars that make the volcanic rocks felsic.

Dacite and rhyolite are characterised by high silica (SiO2) content from 62 to 78 wt%.[36] The average composition of felsic volcanics in Archean greenstone belts is between dacite to rhyolite (Table 2).[3][36] In comparison, the average composition after Archean (<2.5 Ga) is alike rhyolite, indicating a more felsic shift in felsic volcanism.[3] However, this average may be biased because of weathering right after deposition or metamorphism during later stages of deformation.[9]

Table 2. Average composition of felsic volcanics[3]
Time SiO2 (wt%) Na2O+K2O (wt%) Rock Classification[36]
Archean 72.2–73.0 6.4–6.8 Dacite–Rhyolite
Post-Archean 73.0–73.6 7.0–8.0 Rhyolite

In addition, Archean felsic volcanics have high zircon abundance. Incompatible elements, like zirconium, are reluctant to substitute into early-forming crystals.[15] So, they tend to remain in the melt. In strongly fractionated felsic magma, zircon is easily saturated. As a result, zircom is common in felsic rocks.[37] Timing of felsic volcanism and tectonic constraints can be identified by radiometric dating and isotopic analysis.[15]

Eruption style

In Archean, underwater eruptions of felsic lava were common.[5][34][38] It is evident by coarse volcanic breccia formed in situ, hyaloclastite or underwater pyroclastic deposits (clastic rock, composed of tephra only). Since felsic magma is viscous, volcanic eruptions that form dacite or rhyolite are explosive and violent. The Archean felsic eruption may be assigned to Vesuvius eruption type in the present day.[34]

Submarine rhyolitic flows are not uncommon in Archean but it is less common in the modern volcanic environment.[38] It is predicted that viscous felsic eruption often causes pyroclastic flow (hot, dense gas with volcanic fragments) instead of fluid lava flow. However, if the rhyolitic lava is still molten during eruption, it can behave and flow like fluid flow.[5][39]

Subaqueous deposits

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of documented subaqueous felsic lava deposits. (a) Submarine lava flow, based on Héré Creek rhyolite (modified from De Rosen-Spence et al., 1980[5]). (b) Submarine lava dome, based on the Gold Lake dome and flow complex (modified from Lambert et al., 1990)[40]. Illustration adopted from Sylvester et al. (1997) in de Wit & Ashwal (1997)[12].

Felsic lava flow and lava dome are the two common types of underwater deposits formed by Archean felsic volcanics (Fig. 4).[5] Documented Archean lava structures are distinctive from post-Archean felsic lava because underwater eruptions are so rare in post-Archean.[38] The dacitic or rhyolitic lava flows are quenched right after the eruption.[5][15] When water is in touch with the flow, the lava quickly cools down.[39] Finally, The lava solidifies and breaks up as clasts, and the clasts accumulate on the flow fronts to form breccia.[34]

Lava flow

Effusive felsic lava flows elongate several kilometres long. During an eruption, lava continuously wells out from the vent, then starts to flow outward on the sea floor. Due to quenching, lava is rapidly fragmented to form breccia.[39] A new lobe of lava is injected inside the breccia but it is cooled down slower and push the flow further outwards.[5]

Lava dome

Short, stocky dome with subsequent pyroclastic deposits extend less than few kilometres long. When explosion eruption occurs, volcanic fragments would be deposited by violent pyroclastic flows. Coarse breccia would be formed as a result.[40] Submarine sediments would subsequently be deposited along the steep flank of the volcano.[40] Submarine landslides would occur to form turbidites.[40]

Stratigraphic significance

Felsic volcanics is important to deduce absolute age of the rock units in Archean greenstone belts.[12] Felsic eruptions are episodic so that the felsic volcanic layers are distinctive stratigraphic units.[8] Also, felsic volcanics are distributed vastly across long distances because of its extensive deposition.[5][15][16][40] However, the rock sequences of greenstone belts are commonly disputed by later deformation, such as regional folding or intrusion of granitoids.[15] By identifying these felsic sequences and dating their time of formation, stratigraphic units of different locations can be correlated despite the obstacles or discontinuity in between felsic volcanic units.[15][40]

Timing of volcanism

The geochronology of Archean events strongly relies on U-Pb dating[8][24] or Lu-Hf dating.[41] Since mafic rocks, such as basalt, is lack of zircon, only the age of felsic rocks can be dated among the volcanic rocks in greenstone belts.[12] As felsic volcanics are episodically deposited in between mafic layers, the age range of a particular mafic layer can be constrained by the upper and lower felsic volcanic layers.[8]

In addition, the time of occurrence and the duration of felsic volcanism episodes are revealed by absolute dating to determine the absolute ages of the rocks.[15]

Relationships between Archean felsic volcanics and granitoids

From TTG to GMS granitoids

Two plutonic, igneous rock suites forms 50% of Archean cratons.[3] They are (1) Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) suites and (2) Granite-Monzonite-Syenite (GMS) suites in chronological order. They are the batholith that formed the volcanics on the Earth's surface.[28] Later they intruded the supracrustal rocks of similar age and composition in Archean.[17] The uprising magma bodies deformed the surface greenstone belt in a cratonic scale.[4]

Table 3. Comparison between 2 common Archean Granitoids[9][42]
Relative age Granitoid Important mineral present Magma origin
Older (1st granitoid) Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) Na-rich plagioclase + garnet + amphibole hydrated mafic crust
Younger (2nd granitoid) Granite-Monzonite-Syenite (GMS) K-feldspar felsic crust

The two kinds of granitoids have different magma origins: (a) melting of water-rich mafic materials formed older sodium-rich TTG and (b) melting of felsic materials (e.g. TTG and/or sediments[43]) formed younger potassium-rich GMS (see Table 3).[9][42] They imply gradual chemical changes of the in the magma and the Earth's crust.[9]

Conflicting compositions

Records of Archean felsic volcanics shows a peculiar trend. The eruption of felsic volcanics and plutonic activities in Archean are largely synchronised as show in overlapping zircon ages.[9] On contrary, the chemical compositions of some felsic volcanics are similar to that of GMS but they are much older than GMS.[6] For example, there is a GMS-like rhyolite (abnormally more enriched in heavy REE than other Archean felsic volcanics) is not equivalent to the TTG in the same period at Abitibi belt.[28][44] The composition of felsic volcanics should have been altering in the concurrently with shifting granitoid composition.[9]

Fig 5. Possible relationship 1 of Archean felsic volcanics and granitoids. GMS may have intruded the crust at a very shallow depth, and later TTG intruded. Adopted from Agangi et al. (2018)[9]. Abbreviation

Possible relationships

The older GMS-like felsic volcanics formed with similar age of TTG has two implications:[9]

  1. GMS may have intruded the crust and GMS-like volcanics at a very shallow depth. Later, intense erosion rips up all GMS suites and deposited at a proximal distance. If this was true, then GMS and TTG intruded the crust together at the same time. No solid evidence is present yet but the irregular geochemical fingerprints may link both to TTG or GMS.[9]
  2. GMS is concentrated at the upper crust and TTG at deeper intermediate crust. Later, GMS as well as GMS-like volcanics are eroded and deposit as sediments. The detrital zircons may show a range of mixed GMS and TTG geochemical signature.[9]

Limitation

Fig 6. Possible relationship 2 of Archean felsic volcanics and granitoids. GMS and TTG may have intruded the crust at the same time. Yet, GMS was concentrated at the upper crust and TTG at deeper intermediate crust. Adopted from Agangi et al. (2018)[9].

Revealing the relationship between Archean felsic volcanics and the granitoids may be difficult. It is because weathering alters the geochemical signatures of the felsic rocks above the Earth's surface.[45] The earliest weathering record can be traced back to 3.8 Ga during Eoarchean.[45] Potassium is enriched but sodium is depleted in these weathered felsic rocks.[45] Altered feldspars in the rocks may result in such anomalous signatures.[45]

See Also

References

  1. ^ Giles, Christopher William (1980). "A comparative study of Archaean and Proterozoic felsic volcanic associations in Southern Australia / by Chris W. Giles". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ Cohen, K.M., Finney, S.M., Gibbard, P.L., Fan, J.-X. (2013). The ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart. Episodes 36, 199-204.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Condie, Kent C. (1993). "Chemical composition and evolution of the upper continental crust: Contrasting results from surface samples and shales". Chemical Geology. 104 (1–4): 1–37. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(93)90140-e. ISSN 0009-2541.
  4. ^ a b c d e Halla, J; Whitehouse, M. J.; Ahmad, T.; Bagai, Z. (2017). "Archaean granitoids: an overview and significance from a tectonic perspective". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 449 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1144/SP449.10. ISSN 0305-8719.
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