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Racism in Argentina

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In Argentina, as others countries with high levels of multiculturalism and immigration destination place, there has been discrimination based on ethnic characteristics or national origin. In turn, racial discrimination tends to be closely related to discriminatory behavior for socio-economic and political reasons.[1].

Given that trait of Argentine Society, has been established ones of the more active institutions against discrimination in the south hemisphere, the National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism [2]. The INADI (Instituto Nacional contra la Discriminación, la Xenofobia y el Racismo), was created in 1995 by federal law number 24515. The institute placed Argentina in the foreground of the fight against racism and discrimination, although significant progress has been made in eradicating racism.

Different terms and behaviors have spread to discriminate against certain portions of the population, in particular against those who are referred to as "negros", a group that is not particularly well-defined in Argentina, but which is associated, although not exclusively, with people of dark skin or hair; members of the working class or lower class; the poor; and more recently with crime.

Other racist, xenophobic, and disrespectful terms and attitudes have developed against immigrants. Historically, "italiano negro" for the Italian people [3] in general and "ruso" (Russian) for Jew immigrants were terms that carried pejorative connotations. These have to some extent carried over to the present, as jokes inflammed anti-Semitic insults. [4] Today, words such as "bolita", "paragua", and "boliguayo" constitute derogatory terms to refer to certain immigrants of Latin American origin, mostly from neighbouring countries like Bolivia and Paraguay.

Anti-Semitism also exists in Argentina, in a context influenced by the large population of Jewish immigrants and a relatively high level of intermarriage between the immigrants and other communities.

In many cases, "social relations have become racialized" [5]; for example the term "negro" is used to designate a worker, without any relation to the color of his skin. It is common for people who hold positions of responsibility in business to refer to the staff as "negros". In political circles as well it is common for certain groups to denigrate peronist sympathizers by referring to them as "negros".

There is an active debate about the depth of racist conduct in Argentina. While some groups [6] maintain that it is only a question of inoffensive or marginal behavior that is rejected by the vast majority of the population, other groups[7] contend that racism is a widespread phenomena that manifests itself in many different ways. Some groups also assert that racism in Argentina is no different from that which is present in any other country in the world, while other groups[8] claim that Argentina's brand of racism manifests itself in a number of unique ways that are related to the country's history, culture, and the different ethnic groups that interact in the country.


Racial terms

A series of terms are used in Argentina that have a certain discriminatory intention and constitute a particular form of racism.

Negro y negra

In English, negro literally means "black male" and negra means "black female". Negro and negra are widely-used terms in Argentina, across all social classes, including in those classes which are referred to as negro and negra by other social groups. Negro is also one of the most common nicknames, with no offensive meaning.

Paradoxically, the same racist ideology in Argentina that maintains that "there are no negros (of african ancestry) in Argentina"[9] uses the word negros to designate a vaguely-defined population made up of workers, poor people, internal migrants, Latin-American immigrants, and natives, without any more distinction.

Víctor Ramos, the president of SOS Internacional, responded in the following manner when asked by a journalist what were the most common manifestations of racism in Argentina:

I would say that the most common form, what we see most frequently, is related to racism against the criollo. That is to say, against those who are also referred to as "cabecita negra" or "morocho". It is frequently said that in Argentina there is no racism because there are no "negros"... but here there is much discrimination against those of dark skin, including against aborigines [and Italians] who have a darker skin color... this occurs in the same manner in all of the provinces of our country.[8]

An example of this type of racism is the response given by a high-level bureaucrat of the municipality of Escobar to two businessmen who wanted to set up a nightclub next to the rail station:

"I don't want negros here... If I want nightclubs for negros, I'll put them on the periphery of the city, far away.[10]

It is also important to note that there is widespread use of the terms negro and negra that has a fraternal meaning totally devoid of discriminatory intention. Between friends and family they are common nicknames. For example, the famous singer Mercedes Sosa is affectionately know as "Negra Sosa".[11]

Derivations

  • "Grone" ("ne-gro", backwards) is another racist term with widespread use in Argentina, especially in Buenos Aires. The word is a product of a type of slang used in the Río de la Plata region that consists of inverting the syllables of words.

Un grone is not necessarily a black person or someone of dark skin color. Basically it refers to a person who is denigrated for their social situation; frequently someone who belongs to the working-class or who comes from a working-class family. A grone can also refer to a person with light skin, hair, and eyes if the individual belongs to the working class or shows a taste for popular culture. More recently grone or negro has come to be associated with criminal conduct.[12].

  • "Groncho" is an openly racist or classist term widely used in Argentina and Uruguay[13] that is a corruption of the word negro. Another derivation is gronchada, used to refer to a disagreeable thing or act. For example, a person could refer to a pair of pants that they do not like as una gronchada, an allusion to the pants having a style that would be used by a groncho.

This word entered the lexicon in the second half of the 1970s. In the 1980s a famous television sketch called El groncho y la dama was made as part of the show Matrimonios y algo más featuring Cristina del Valle and Hugo Arana. The sketch was a satirical look at a marriage between a working-class mechanic and a upper-class lady who referred to her husband as the groncho (in the sense of "vulgar person", not properly a racist slur) while seduced by his sexual skills.

The rock group Babasónicos recorded an album entitled Groncho in 2000.[14]

  • "Negrada" is a term used with regularity in Argentina and Uruguay and one of its meanings is identical to gronchada. It is also used as a derogatory term to refer to a group of persons described as negros, even though they are not. An example of this use is provided by the pianist Miguel Ángel Estrella when recalling the interrogations he endured in Uruguay when he was detained by the last military dictatorship during Operation Condor:

    He ran the interrogations. He would say to me: You are never going to play piano again. Because you are not a rebel, you are something worse: with your piano and your smile you've got the negrada in the palm of your hand and make them believe they can hear Beethoven.[15]

Italiano Negro

'Italiano Negro' literaly means black or dark Italian. This is a label that was applied to past immigration flow of dark skinned Italians. The term denotes the high birth rate of offspring between Italian and Black. Argentine historian, of Spaniard descent, Mariano Bosch wrote in 1941 that:

Italian men had "perhaps an atavistic preference for black women... because the Italian has much African in him [and his skin is not pale]." [16]

Cabecita negra

"Cabecita negra" (literally, little black head) is an oft-used, historic racist term in Argentina. The word was coined after the Spanish name of a native bird, the Hooded Siskin. It is used to disparage a somewhat nebulous sector of society associated with people that have black hair and medium-dark skin, belonging to the working class.

The term originated in Buenos Aires during the 1940s, when a large internal migration started from the rural northern provinces towards Buenos Aires and other large urban centers. The impetus for the migration was the newly created factory jobs that came about as a result of industrialization in Argentina.

The Argentine author Germán Rozenmacher (1936-1971) wrote a well-known short story in 1961 titled: "Cabecita negra" which depicted everyday racism in Argentina with stark reality. The plot deals with a mid-class citizen of european ancestry, who resents the increasing internal migration of impoverished people from northern Argentina to Buenos Aires. A portion of the story reads:

He would have liked for his son to be there. Not so much to defend against the negros who had now sprawled out in his own house, but rather to confront all that has neither feet nor head and to feel companionship with a fellow human being, another civilized person. It was as if these savages had suddenly invaded his home.

Cabeza

Cabeza (head, in English) is a derivation of cabecita negra that has appeared more recently. It tends to refer to someone from the countryside, simple and unsophisticated, who lives in the city. The word is also used by some groups of young people to refer to someone who is viewed as undesirable, badly dressed, unpleasant; someone who falls outside of what is considered to be the "correct" style.

Indio

The word indio (Indian, in English) is much less racially charged than the term negro in common Argentine language. There has even been a trend over the last several decades of naming children with indigenous names[17] such as Ayelén, Maitén, or Lautaro. The trend even forced the Argentine government to revise the laws prohibiting the use of indigenous names.[18]

Nevertheless, the term is sometimes used with a racist subtext. For example, the phrase: "¡chicos, parecen indios!" ("You children look like Indians!"), although no longer heavily used, clearly implies "dirty" or "disorganized". Other examples such as: "Yo de pendejo era re-indio" ("When I was a brat I was wild") and "Mi hermanito es un Indio" ("My little brother is an Indian") are still used to refer to someone who has violent or irrational attitudes, or who acts impulsively. Although the phrases also suggest laxness or dirtiness, they are more often used from a deceitful or even conceited point of view.

There is also a clear tendency to label all indigenous people as indio or indígena without the speaker specifying which group the person belongs to, or even knowing which group they belong to. This is a generalized practice that is common to Latin America as a whole and not just Argentina,[19] and is directly related to the effacement of non-European cultures.

Mestizo

The word mestizo is not used very often in daily speech, although it is relatively common in the context of social sciences and history, sometimes with racial connotations.

The use of mestizo as a racist term comes from the colonial caste system which was based on the concept of pure blood: the mestizo was considered inferior to the pure Spanish because his blood was mixed which made him impure. Although today it is known that biologically there is no such thing as a pure person, and various researchers have recycled the term to refer to any exchange of DNA[20], and various other experts assert that all peoples and races are the result of prior mixing of races[21], during the Spanish colonization of the Americas the idea was imposed that mestizo should be applied only to those persons of mixed indigenous and European ancestry, in order to demarcate their difference from the pure people who were generally of European ancestry.

The racist colonial concept of mestizaje to some extent endures to this day, as witnessed by the recent debate about the racial origin of José de San Martin, one of the founders of Argentina. Commenting on this phenomenon, historian Hugo Chumbita asserted that "there has been and continues to be resistance to revising official history due to the idea that by corroborating the mixed racial origin of San Martín, then Argentina's image would be tarnished."[22] In a similar vein, an Argentine newspaper reported that conservatives voices were complaining: "If the founding father is a mestizo bastard, then so is Argentina."[23]

Boliguayo

The word boliguayo, a combination of boliviano (Bolivian, in English) and paraguayo (Paraguayan, in English), is a blatantly derogatory term that first appeared in the 1990s and its use is growing rapidly in the first decade of the 21st century. The term's derogatory nature comes precisely from the speaker's indifference to the immigrant's identity, in a similar way to indio or sudaca.

The following interview with a rugby player demonstrates how the term is used:

Why do they call you Boliguayo?: I really don't know, they gave me the nickname when I was on a road trip if my memory serves me correctly. I was sort of boliguayo (dumb, slow)..[24]

Types of racism in Argentina

"White-European" racism and Article 25 of the Constitution

In Argentina an extensive racist ideology has been built on the notion of European supremacy.[25] This ideology forwards the idea that Argentina is a country populated by European immigrants "bajados de los barcos" (straight off the boat), frequently referred to as "our grandfathers", who founded a special type of "white" and European society that is not Latin-American.[26] In addition, this ideology holds forth that cultural influences from other communities such as the Aborigines, Africans, Latin-Americans, Italians, or Asians are not relevant and even undesirable. White-European racism in Argentina shares similarities with the White Australia policy that was practiced during the beginning of the 20th century.

White-European racism in Argentina has a history of government participation. The ideology even has a legal foundation that was set forth in Article 25 of the National Constitution sponsored by Juan B. Alberdi. The article establishes a difference between European immigration (which should be encouraged) and non-European immigration.

Article 25: The Federal Government will encourage European immigration; and will not restrict, limit, nor tax the entry of any foreigner into the territory of Argentina who comes with the goal of working the land, bettering industry, or introducing or teaching sciences or the arts.

The article's sponsor, Alberdi, father of the Argentine Constitution of 1853, explained in his own words the basis for White-European discrimination:

If you were to put the roto (literally "broken"), the gaucho, the cholo, the basic element of our popular masses, through the finest educational system; in one hundred years you would not make him an English worker who works, consumes, and lives comfortably and in a dignified manner[27]

The discrimination between European and non-European immigration established by Article 25 of the Constitution has survived all subsequent constitutional reforms (1860, 1868, 1898, 1949, 1957, 1972 and 1994).

Originally this ideology had been structured to include immigrants of Italians and Jews in the undesirable category, claiming that the "races which could improve the species" in Argentina where those that originated from northwestern Europe, chiefly England and France.

Alberdi, who was a proponent of French being the national language of Argentina, believed that Christian traditions were enemies of progress and supported discrimination against Italian and Jewish immigration.[28]

To govern is to populate in the sense that to populate is to educate, to better, to civilize, to enrich and enlarge spontaneously and rapidly, like what has happened in the United States. In order to civilize by means of the populace it is essential to do it with civilized populations; in order to educate our America in liberty and in industry it is essential to populate it with people from Europe who are more advanced in the matters of liberty and industry... there are foreigners and there are foreigners; and if Europe is the most civilized land on the planet, there is in Europe and in the heart of its brilliant capitals, more millions of savages than in all of South America. All that is civilized is European, at the very least in origin, but not all that is European is civilized; and it is easy to imagine the scenario of a new country populated by Europeans more ignorant of industry and liberty than the hordes of the Pampas or the Chaco.[29]

With three million Aborigines, Christians and Catholics, you will not create a republic for certain. You will not succeed either with the Iberian Spaniards, because there are not enough pure Spaniards in Argentina. If we have to build our population for our system of government, if we have to constitute our population to fit the system we envision rather than make the system fit the population, it is necessary to encourage Anglo-Saxon immigration. Anglo-Saxons represent steam, commerce, and liberty, and it will not be possible to instill these things in ourselves without the active cooperation of this progressive and civilized race. [30]

Nevertheless, with the failure of the government to attract massive immigration from these countries, and quite to the contrary with the significant immigration of large contingents of Europeans over time the prevalent racist ideology was adapted to include Jews and Italians in the "European" and "white" categories. This tendency was recently reinforced when Italy joined the European Union. On the other hand, Argentine racist ideology against Jews became stronger over time. The apex of this tendency occurred when the Argentina foreign minister during the presidency of Roberto M. Ortiz issued a secret order in 1938 to deny Jewish immigrants visas to Argentina [31].

Racism Against Italians

Since the late 1800s and early 1900s, Argentina has absorbed much Italian immigration. As Italian immigrants looking for a better way of life attempted to acclimate themselves into Argentine culture, they were met with racism at the hands of Argentines of Spaniard descent. [32] The distinction in skin tones between dark skinned Italians and pale Argentines of Spaniard descent became the main drive of racist overtones against Italian immgrants. [33] At the turn of the 20th century, Italians became the targets of racism along with Jews and other dark skinned peoples. Initially, they were given menial, blue collar jobs while the majority of the white collar jobs were enjoyed by established Argentines of Spaniard descent. [34][35]

Anti-Semitism

Leonardo Senkman, editor of the book Antisemitism in Argentina, stated:

In contemporary Argentina – home to the most significant community of Jews in Latin America – anti-Semitism has been an endemic and extremely complicated phenomena. [36]

Serious acts of racism against Jews have been committed in Argentina, such as the Argentine Chancellor's secret order in 1938 to prevent the arrival of Jews on national territory [31] and the terrorist attacks on the Jewish embassy in 1992 and the Asociación Mutual Israelita Argentina in 1994. The terrorist attacks against Jewish targets has sparked a debate between those who believe that they were not anti-Semitic acts and those who believe that the attacks were the "worst act of anti-Semitism since the second world war" [37].

In an attempt to synthesize the positions of both sides of the debate, the researcher Daniel Lvovich has written:

The attack on the AMIA was one of the most important acts of anti-Semitism of recent times, but the flip side was that thousands of demonstrators took to the streets with signs that read "We are all Jews".[38]

In 1937, during the government of Augustín P. Justo, the Argentine consul in Gdynia, Poland sent several notes to the Minister Carlos Saavedra Lamas under the heading "Jewish problem" that demonstrate the generalized anti-Semitic sentiment of the Argentine government. In a letter sent July 13, 1937, on the eve of the Nazi invasion, the consul wrote:

I am of the opinion that it would be preferable to prevent Jewish immigration to Argentina. The Jews are leaving Poland carrying a profound hatred of Christianity, and are prepared to commit the gravest of excesses.[39]

During the military regimes in Argentina, and especially during the dictatorship known as the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional, serious acts of anti-Semitic persecution occurred. Some were tortured, degraded, and even murdered for the sole fact of being Jewish. In the secret detention centers it was common practice to burn the Star of David onto the bodies of Jewish prisoners[40]. Ramon Camps, the Chief of Police in Buenos Aires, who allegedly kidnapped and tortured Jacob Timerman, claimed that Zionists were enemies of Argentina and had a plan to destroy the country. This ideology was used as a pretext to implement illegal repressive methods to resolve what was referred to as "the Jewish issue" [41].

Anti-Semitism in daily life is widely apparent in Argentina. A prime example of this occurs regularly at the Atlanta soccer club located in the Villa Crespo neighborhood of Buenos Aires, a district that has a significant Jewish population. For several years now the fans of opposing teams root for their clubs by waving Nazi flags and throwing hams onto the playing field[42].

A report by the DAIA revealed that discriminatory acts against Jews in Argentina rose 32% in 2006[43].

Racism against other Latin-Americans

Paraguayans and Bolivians were the two principal sources of Latin American immigrants to Argentina in 2007. It is estimated that almost 5% of the population in Argentina is from Paraguay or Bolivia, or has Bolivian or Paraguayan ancestors.[44][45]

In the context of racism against Latin-Americans, the participation of Argentina along with Brazil and Uruguay in the genocide of Paraguayans during the War of the Triple Alliance (1865-1870) should be mentioned. During the war virtually the entire male population of Paraguay, including children, was exterminated. From that moment on the development of Paraguay and its population has always lagged behind other countries, even though Paraguay was the most technologically advanced country in the region before the war.

The preference for European immigration institutionalized in the Constitution was not modified by any of the six constitutional reforms that have since taken place, the last of which occurred in 1994. As a consequence the historical cultural message of the Argentine State has been to establish discrimination within the Argentine population, making a qualitative distinction between European descendants and non-European descendants and their respective cultures.

In this cultural context, fans of one of the most well-known soccer clubs in the country regularly sing in unison a song aimed at denigrating the fans of the club's classic rival, calling them "dirty blacks from Bolivia and Paraguay" [46].

Another well-known incident was the racially motivated murder of Marcelina Meneses and her ten month old son Josua Torrez who were pushed under a moving train near the Avellaneda station on July 10, 2001. The Bolivian community in Argentina protested with the slogan "Do not forget Marcelina". [47]

Notable people

The principal inspirators of the Argentine racism were Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Juan Bautista Alberdi, José Ingenieros, Jose Maria Ramos, etc. More recently, the military governments elaborated texts and policies inspired by this peculiar Argentine racism, which reinforced the ideology and gave to it political connotations.

Legacy

Contemporary Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Argentina

The current Argentine population reflects the former immigration policy conducted by the Argentine government in the 19th and 20th century. The most common ethnic groups in Argentina today are Italian and Spanish. There are also significant Germanic, Slavic, British and French populations.

See also

References

  1. ^ Los migrantes y la discriminación en Argentina, por José Sáez Capel, Scripta Nova, Revista Electrónica de Geografía y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Barcelona, 2001; La escuela es el peor nido de los prejuicios y el racismo en Argentina, Entrevista a Víctor Ramos, presidente de SOS Internacional
  2. ^ http://www.inadi.gov.ar/inadiweb/index.php National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism
  3. ^ http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Afro-Argentine
  4. ^ "Ruso", Jergas del habla hispana
  5. ^ Margulis,1998:79 y ss
  6. ^ Pelé desestimó racismo: En Argentina me decían «negro sucio» y no pasó nada, Radio Cooperativa, 27 de abril de 2006
  7. ^ Argentina: empanada, asado de vaca y mucho racismo, por Marina Ari, Argentina Indymedia, 30 de abril de 2003
  8. ^ a b La escuela es el peor nido de los prejuicios y el racismo en Argentina, Entrevista a Víctor Ramos, presidente de SOS Internacional
  9. ^ En Argentina "no hay negros", BBC, 28 de septiembre de 2002
  10. ^ Denuncia por discriminación en Escobar, Clarín, 22 de julio de 2006
  11. ^ La Negra Sosa emocionó a 75 mil personas, Clarín, 19 de febrero de 2006
  12. ^ Preocupación por una encuesta a aspirantes de la nueva Policía, Clarín, 26 de junio de 2006
  13. ^ Jergas de habla hispana, Jerga de Argentina, Groncho
  14. ^ Groncho (2000), Babasónicos
  15. ^ El pianista Miguel Angel Estrella recuerda la tortura en Uruguay: Me decía «te formaron para tocar para nosotros y elegiste la negrada», entrevista de Miguel Bonasso, La Fogata
  16. ^ http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/argentina.html
  17. ^ Incentivan a poner nombres indígenas, La Gaceta de Tucumán, 20 de diciembre de 2005
  18. ^ Por la Ley 23.162 de 1984 se agregó el artículo 3 bis a la Ley del Nombre nacional, autoriza la inscripción de "nombres aborígenes o derivados de voces aborígenes autóctonas y latinoamericanas".
  19. ^ MANN, Charles (2006), 1491, Apéndice A: Palabras lastradas, Madrid, Taurus, pag. 443-449
  20. ^ La investigadora María Elena Sáenz Faulhaber sostiene que el concepto de "raza" debe ser referido al ADN y el de "mestizaje" a su combinación. Para ella "mestizaje" significa que "los respectivos cromosomas con sus genes se combinan entre sí, sin mostrar preferencia alguna por los de uno u otro grupo y con una independencia absoluta de la cultura". Sáenz Faulhaber, María Elena (1993). El mestizaje en la integración de la población colonial, en Bernardo García Martínez, Cecilia Rabell Romero, et al., El poblamiento de México. Una visión histórico demográfica, tomo II: El México colonial, México: Consejo Nacional de Población,pp. 86-107.
  21. ^ Catalunya, crisol de culturas o elogio del mestizaje humano y cultural, Juan Agustín Goytisolo, La Factoría, Nº 9, Junio-Septiembre 1999
  22. ^ Prócer mestizo. Investigadores señalan que el ideal americanista y popular del libertador fue impulsado por su sangre indígena, La Capital, 7 de noviembre de 2006
  23. ^ El terremoto sanmartiniano, Los Andes, 31 de agosto de 2001
  24. ^ Amia Cuba, Las 40 de la 22, 2002
  25. ^ La discriminación en la discursividad social, por Mario Margulis, en Margulis (1998):17-37
  26. ^ El racismo argentino es un racismo europeo, por Teun van Dijk, Centro de Documentación Mapuche, 2004
  27. ^ ALBERDI, Juan B. (1852), Bases y puntos de partida para la reorganización nacional, Cap. XV, pág. 90 consulta del libro en la Biblioteca Virtual Cervantes
  28. ^ Bárbaros y civilizados, por Pacho O'DONNEL, Desarrollo y región, 30 de mayo de 2006
  29. ^ Alberdi, Juan B. (1879) Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina; Páginas explicativas, [Bases:Páginas explicativas de Juan B. Alberdi|[(Wikisource)]]
  30. ^ Alberdi, Juan B. (1879) Bases y puntos de partida para la organización política de la República Argentina, [Bases:Páginas explicativas de Juan B. Alberdi|[(Wikisource)]]
  31. ^ a b Argentina: Grietas nazis en pasado encubierto, por Marcela Valente, 2005
  32. ^ http://www.lewrockwell.com/woods/woods32.html
  33. ^ http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/argentina.html
  34. ^ http://www.topix.com/forum/world/italy/TH0N5FHTGD7COT2JC/p21#lastPost
  35. ^ http://www.amazon.com/Are-Italians-White-Race-America/product-reviews/0415934508
  36. ^ Senkman,1989
  37. ^ Doce Años y aún sin Respuesta: El Impacto del Atentado a la AMIA Sobre la Comunidad Internacional, por E. R. Goodkind, 18 de julio de 2006, Washington, D.C. (ver)
  38. ^ El libro "Nacionalismo y antisemitismo en la Argentina", de Daniel Lvovich, La Capital, 12 de octubre de 2003
  39. ^ Carta del Cónsul argentino Marcos A. Savon al Ministro Carlos Saavedra Lamas del 14 de julio de 1937, ARCHIVOS: Informes de las misiones diplomáticas argentinas sobre la política racista Alemania y los paises de la Europa ocupada (1933-1945), Polonia (1937-1945), Portal Iberoamérica y el Mundo
  40. ^ El antisemitismo y la Argentina, Mario Geller, Instituto Ana Harendt
  41. ^ Ramón Camps: el peor de todos, Terra, 18 de marzo de 2006
  42. ^ Jorge Rubinska, presidente de Atlanta, responde sobre el significado del antisemitismo contra su club y dentro de él, Página 12, 17 de septiembre de 2000
  43. ^ La DAIA se reúne con Kirchner y le pedirá que sea firme con Irán, Clarín, 31 de enero de 2007
  44. ^ [1]
  45. ^ Raúl Kollmann, Cónsul boliviano con los días contados, Página 12,9 de abril de 2006
  46. ^ Libertad de circulación de los trabajadores en el Mercosur (OIT, 2004)
  47. ^ Un testigo cuenta como una mujer boliviana fue arrojada del tren: Relato de un viaje a la xenofobia, por Cristian Alarcón, Página/12, 2 de junio de 2001
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