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"The Glorification of the Barbaro Family" by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo

The Barbaro family is a noble Venetian family categorized as one of the original Old Families of Venice (families that either founded Venice, were derived from ancient Roman nobility, or were added to Venice's patricate prior to the Great Council of 1297).[1] The Barbaro family first became titled Venetian nobility in the 9th century. Prior, they were of aristocratic ancient Roman stock. The Venetian House of Barbaro was granted the official title of Venice's ruling class, Nobilomo, abbreviated as N.H. (Latin for nobilis homo), and Patrician of Venice as their first post-Roman noble privileges. Later, the family earned additional noble and royal titles, unassociated with the Republic of Venice. [2] The Barbaro family is a highly intellectual family that has had several of its members noted as educational, political, church, and military leaders, with many of its members being respected humanists and patrons of the arts.[3] The noble Barbaro family continues to survive today. [4]

Coat of Arms

The BArbaro coat of arms
The BArbaro coat of arms

The official coat of arms of the noble Barbaro family is a red Annulet (ring) on a shield of silver or white placed on top of the double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Emperor[5]

The Barbaro family arms were first created in the 12th century when Marco Barbaro served as Provveditore d'Arma (Admiral of the Venetian Armada) in 1121. After a bloody battle off the coast of Jaffa, Marco Barbaro achieved final victory by severing the hand of the opposing admiral. With the bloody stump, Marco drew a red circle ensign as a symbol of victorious completion that he flew from his masthead as he returned back to Venice. In 1123 by senatorial ordinance, the "d'argento al cerchio rosso" (red ring on a silver field) became the official coat of arms of the family, replacing their previous arms of two red fesse (red bars) which referenced the family's ancient Roman roots, specifically, the striped tunics worm by the patricians of the Roman Senate. When Marco Barbaro later served as Commanding General in the War of Romania, Marco lost his military standard bearing the red annulet of the Barbaro family arms. In a last ditch effort to save Romania from falling, Marco Barbaro made a makeshift standard from the bloody bandage tied in a loop around his head and attached it to a spear. He then proceeded to rally his troops to a miraculous victory. The Romanian victory is especially important to the symbolism of the family's arms because it officially altered the annulet's original meaning. No longer was it regarded as the Ciclamoro (Moorish Ring). It became known as the Eternal Ring of Blood, the basis of the Barbaro's family myth of everlasting life.[6]

When the family's ambassador to Milan and Mantua, Francesco Barbaro, also became the ambassador of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund made Francesco a knight of the Emperor's personal order in 1432, allowing, for the first time, the Barbaro family arms to be placed on top of the double-headed eagle of the Holy Roman Empire. It is this device that continues to stand out on the central tympanum of the family's country home, Villa Barbaro, at Maser. [7]

Patronage and Artistic Collaboration

The noble Barbaro family has a long tradition of being patrons of the arts, and they have commissioned several important artistic and architectural works. The family was one of the major patrons of the architect Andrea Palladio and the painter Paolo Veronese, with Daniele Barbaro and Marcantonio Barbaro commissioning both masters to create the family's famous Villa Barbaro at Maser- along with Marcantonio being a contributing artist in his own right. [8] The Barbaro family was also responsible for several constructions within Venice, some of which include: renovations and additions to their Venetian palace Palazzi Barbaro, the rebuilding of Santa Maria Zobenigo as the family's official crypt, and the management of Palazzo Dario (and the connecting Palazzo Barbaro of the St. Vitus quarter) for the family members who resided there. The Barbaro family also constructed their own personal chapel within San Francesco della Vigna[9] [10][11]


Building Projects of the Classical Style

The Barbaro family promoted Venice's Neo-classicism in the republic's building projects over the previous Gothic style. The family supported many of Palladio's bids to build churches within Venice, such as the architect's masterpieces the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and the Church of Il Redentore. Palladio was the architect of choice for the family's retreat at Maser, and he illustrated Daniele Barbaro's Commentaries on Vitruvius in 1556, further expressing the ideals of classical architecture. Later, in the 17th century, the family's palazzo at San Vidal would also undertake a building expansion, with it too, being executed in accordance with classical taste. [12]

In 1472 rotten piles were removed and replaced from the only bridge that spanned the Grand Canal, an old wooden structure at the Rivoaltus or Rialto (the commercial district in the heart of Venice). The Rialto Bridge continued to require a lot of maintenance, and in the sixteenth century it was decided to replace the wooden structure with a stone one. The first proposal to rebuild the bridge in stone is believed to have taken place on October 28, 1507. In 1529, Michelangelo had a brief stay in Venice, proposing a bridge design that showed a neo-classical structure. The senate decided to promote three noble provveditori to oversee the rebuilding of the bridge, one of which was Marcantonio Barbaro, the other two being Jacopo Foscarini and Alvise Zorzi. Marcantonio Barbaro prompted his main architect, Palladio, to submit a design for the Rialto bridge competition in 1544, a design that would also be contained within the architect's I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura.[13] For Barbaro, this was his chance to make a cultural statement regarding the direction of Venetian architecture. The inspiration to bring Palladio onto the project may have also come from Daniele Barbaro who had collaborated with the architect on his work about Vitruvius. However, The move towards a more "classical" Venice was contested by the noble families of Pisani, Cornaro, Badoer, Mocenigo, and Foscari, who may have seen it as a rejection of the style used in their Gothic palaces.[14]

On January 23, 1588, a major clash between the visions of Marcantonio Barbaro and Alvise Zorzi took place. Zorzi's architect Antonio da Ponte suggested a bridge of a single arch, that promoted function over aesthetics. Barbaro wanted a bridge of sublime beauty. Palladio's design incorporated a stunning structure of five arches with a temple-like central portion. The architect Vincenzo Scamozzi also submitted a multi-arch design, in this case, a bridge of three arches. Scamozzi also collaborated with the Barbaro family on an idea to rebuild the Doge's Palace in the neo-classical style- a project that never came to fruition. Both of the multi-arched designs required a complex partial draining of the Grand Canal of Venice, and in 1588 the Senate and the Collegio voted in favor of Zorzi's single-arch design, the Rialto Bridge as it is today. Nevertheless, Barbaro's vision for this landmark project is preserved in the painting of Palladio's Unrealized Project for the Rialto Bridge by Francesco Guardi as well as the Capriccio with the Ponte di Rialto in Venice by Canaletto[15]


The Barbaro Commissions of Palazzi Barbaro

A series of oil paintings were commissioned by the Barbaro family to depict great figures of classical antiquity and the Old Testament to be used for the interior design of the family's ballroom addition within Palazzi Barbaro. Work on the construction of the Barbaro's palace stretched for over a half of century and involved more than a half a dozen artists, and ultimately, yielded nineteen canvases for three different rooms. The commission was begun by Alvise Barbaro, for whose portego on the piano nobile Nicolo Bambini and Giovanni Segala had completed six paintings by 1699. Bambini's four Old testament subjects-Lot Lying with His Daughters; Hagar's Succor of Ishmael in the Wilderness; Tamar's Conception of a Child by Judah; The Egyptian Princess Saving Moses from the Waters- all emphasize the Barbaro family as an "old family" with pre-Christian ancestry. [16]

Segala's two works, The judgement of Paris; Faith, Hope and Charity, were placed in the middle of the entire pictorial grouping. Each glorifies a trio of females, the first paying tribute to the worldly attributions of women, the second praising spiritual virtues. In the nearby camerone, Antonio Zanchi painted five ceiling tondi of famous Greek and Roman heroines whose moral superiority must have appealed to Alvise Barbaro: Artemisia, conjugal love; Cloelia, fortitude; Hypsicrateia, valor; Hersilia, reconciliation; and Zenobia, honor in submission.[17]

Just before the end of the century, Sebastiano Ricci painted the Rape of the Sabine Women on one of the camerone's walls. This subject agrees with the thematic emphasis of the scenes by Bambini, Segala, and Zanchi that decorate both the ceiling above the portego beyond. Like the narratives in the portego, it too points to the enduring survival of the ancient Romans, or in this case, the "eternal" Barbaro family. But Ricci's scene is also stylistically different from the work of Bambini, Segala, and Zanchi. Zanchi's dramatic Tenebrism contrasts with Bambini's academic classicism, while Sengala's bright tonalities and elongated figures announce a decided turn away from both. Ricci, in turn, opted for a heroic composition full of dramatic sweep, enlivened with convincing archaeological detail and made vivid through broad gesture and facial expression.[18]

In 1709, Almoro Barbaro continued his father's patronage and employed Antonio Balestra from Verona, who had studied with Carlo Maratta, to depict a painting of Coriolanus at the gates of Rome on another of the camerone's walls. The works depicts Venturia as she pleads with and Volumnia exhorts Coriolanus, their husband and son respectively, to halt the assault on Rome. Like Ricci, Balestra referred to a Roman military narrative. Balestra's quiet composition and deep tones contrast with Ricci's whirlwind of action and bright colors, thereby broadening still further the range of artistic styles visible in Palazzi Barbaro by 1710.[19]

The third wall painting created for the camerone was Mucius Scaevola before King Porsenna by Giovanni Battista Piazzetta. This painting depicts the ancient Roman choosing to punish himself by placing his own hand into a caldron of fire. The work is a statement about personal duty and the virtues of Stoicism. It is also a deviation from the female themed works contained within the same space. Consequently, it was specifically commissioned to remind the Barbaro patricians of their responsibility to their family and their civic duties towards improving the social causes of Venice. Almoro was a champion of women's rights, and for fifteen years, Alvise and Almoro Barbaro commissioned paintings that depicted either the important deeds of women or their involvement in critical moments of history. The Barbaro family supported the decision of allowing Elena Cornaro Piscopia to become Europe's first female university graduate (class of 1678) at the University of Padua- a university where Barbaro family members served as deans and professors. However, it would be Almoro's own personal sacrifice of passing on his right to serve as Doge of Venice after his elected victory in the republic that would solidify his reputation among the people of Venice. The position of Doge offered tremendous personal gains for Almoro, but at the price of relinquishing a good portion of his family's patrimony to the republic. Ultimately, Almoro would care more about the other members of his family before his own personal glory- and passed on Venice's supreme honor. Nevertheless, Almoro became one of the most powerful and respected Venetian figures who was a refined and learned diplomat that would bring thirty-nine years of dignity to dealings with the Patriarchs of Aquileia, a position that other Barbaro family members officially held. It would also be Almoro that became the inspiration for The Glorification of the Barbaro Family a work by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo that honors Almoro and the Barbaro family in apotheosis surrounded by several female personifications as well as the lion, a symbol of the Republic of Venice as associated with St. Mark. The work was placed within Palazzi Barbaro's library ceiling, but later removed for preservation, and is now held within the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. Almoro would later commission six other works by Tiepolo for the soprapporte (overdoor paintings) in the ballroom, each depicting famous classical heroines- thus, completing the vision of the palace's artistic program. [20]

Scholarship and the University of Padua

Many members of the noble Barbaro family of Venice have made significant contributions in scholarship. Francesco Barbaro was responsible for translating Aesop's Fables into Latin as early as 1410, while Ermolao Barbaro contributed to his family's reputation by being a major translator of the works of Aristotle. Ermolao became an expert of the works of Dioscorides and Pliny, with Barbaro writing his seminal work the Castigationes Plinianae (Castigations of Plyny), which was a crucial step forward in the science of natural history by establishing that Pliny the Elder had made several thousand mistakes in his observations of the animal world. Ermolao Barbaro was also able to demonstrate that even Aristole and Theophrastus in his History of Plants could be challenged for their descriptions of nature. Ultimately, Ermolao Barbaro fueled a new interest in rethinking the works of classical antiquity, and Ermolao was appointed professor of Philosophy at the University of Padua in 1477. [21] In 1543, Giosafat Barbaro had published Journey to the Tanais, Persia, India, and Constantinople, based on a 16 year journey to the high courts of Asia as Europe's first ambassador to the Orient. Also in the sixteenth century, Daniele Barbaro published a commentary on Vitruvius in Latin and Italian editions, and wrote his thesis La Practica della Perspectiva that discussed the science of artistic Perspective (graphical). It was also during this period that the Barbaro family played a major role in overseeing the University of Padua. Marcantonio Barbaro made a crucial step forward in civic rights by defending the idea of a more democratic admission policy- allowing for the University of Padua to be the first university in Europe to have allowed Jewish students the right to a formal university degree. This was further backed by the Barbaro family's approval of also allowing the university to have a female graduate, another first in the history of Western education. [22]

The University of Padua also became an important refuge for scientific innovators. The original pulpit of Galileo that the scientist taught from in 1592-1610 is still preserved. The university's anatomy theatre, built in 1594, is the world's oldest surviving medical lecture theatre; it was there that Gabriele Fallopio researched human reproduction, later having the fallopian tube named in his honor. It was also at the University of Padua that Fallopio promoted the idea of the use of condoms to reduce sexually transmitted disease, a position the Barbaro family defended in light of the conservative teachings of the church. [23]

The Fall of Venice: The House of Barbaro (1797- Present)

By the 18th century, the Venetian noble House of Barbaro had experienced substantial changes to their traditionally Venetian origins, starting first with Simone Barbaro who had taken a strong interest in Tripoli and the southern territories of Italy. Simone was a champion against slavery who had used his personal wealth to pay for the freedom of those in bondage. He was celebrated by the Grand Maestro dell'Ordine Soverno of Malta who had secured a place for him within Maltese society. His sons became Knights of Malta, and ultimately, Carlantonio Barbaro would establish a line of Marchesi di San Giorgio, and eventually Counts von Zimmermann, who became independent from the Venetian Barbaro family, using a different coat of arms, devoid of the imperial double-headed eagle, while also using Zimmermann and St. George as alternative surnames in place of Barbaro. [24]

May 12, 1797, marks the official fall of the Republic of Venice by Napoleon I of France. Venice, the Serenissima (most serene), had for centuries remained unconquered, and for the first time, the noble Barbaro family of Venice experienced anxieties about the future direction of its House. [25] Those hit the hardest were the Barbaro members of the "San Vidal" location. Their income was based on the survival of the Republic of Venice. They were eventually forced to sell their Palazzi Barbaro, and retreat exclusively to Villa Barbaro in Maser. However, by 1864, the family's most noted group, "San Vidal", was unable to produce any male members to carry on San Vidal's glorious past, thereby extinguishing a substantial line within the noble Barbaro family.[26]

The future legacy of the House of Barbaro would ultimately lie in the hands of Alessandro Barbaro who owned Palazzo Dario and the connecting Palazzo Barbaro of the St. Vitus quarter. Alessandro became a powerful figure in Venice, serving on the Council of Ten as well as being on the Supreme Tribunal.[27] Alessandro's wealth was in the family's business interests in Southern Italy, following the pursuits of earlier Barbaro family members, such as Pietro Barbaro who established himself as Lord of Petramala early on. [28]

In 1814, Venice became the Provincial Capital of Austria and Alessandro's family was elevated to high rankings within the House of Habsburg-Lorraine[29] Giovanni Battista Barbaro (the first born son) that followed had gone through the sottodescritto (princely underwriting) required to fully elevate him into a royal princely count. Giovanni Battista would also marry highly into a mediatized princely house from the Campolongo. However, it would be his son Valeriano, who would suit the Austrian House the most by taking on a Latin name in honor of the Holy Roman Emperor as well as his father's name (a family tradition that continued), being recorded as Princely Count Giambattista Valerianus. He too would marry highly from a daughter of the House of Bini, originally of Florence. The second son, forming another line, would also receive an Austrian title of a noble count through concessione (concession) on January 1, 1818. Both family titles continued on perpetually. [30] By the second half of the 19th century, the Barbaro family had taken on an "Austrian" identity. Princely members styled themselves as being of the Grand Principality of Transylvania, following the Austrian Emperor's successful campaign of retaining his territories of Transylvania (in Romania) from Hungary. Francesco Adolfo Barbaro, well into the 20th century, even gave birth to his daughter Maria (named in honor of Maria Theresa of Austria) on December 22, 1911 in Vienna.[31]

The 19th century also became the period that the Barbaro family became involved with the issues associated with Risorgimento (Italian unification). This became a most complex matter in dealings with their Southern Italian holdings. The family held baronial estates in Latronico and Calabria which served as silk production centers. [32] Politics in Southern Italy also differed from the North, as their holdings were in the borders of the Kingdom of Naples that was governed by King Joachim Murat, a family member of Napoleon. Murat had the idea of creating a new Kingdom in Calabria. In March of 1815, King Murat had begun a strong campaign of removing Austrians from his territory, causing further difficulties for the Barbaro family's interests in the South.[33]

1814 began talks of how to deal with northern titular rights in southern regions. The Barbaro family had already been given the title of Nobile from the Austrian Emperor which allowed the family to have political control over all of their holdings without the need of declaring a specific seat- rights that were not well observed in Southern Italy. Between February-March of 1815, the Congress of Vienna assembled to deal with matters pertaining to Italian and German settlements. It was also during this time that the Holy Roman Emperor established an official set of Royal and noble styles for members of princely rank- with those members of the Barbaro family who were princely counts being given H.Ill.H. (His Illustrious Highness), used universally for all princely counts during this period. It was also agreed that the family's Northern title of Nobile could be understood within the concept of an Albergo, with members in the southern region being recognized as Barons dell'Albergo. The notion of an Albergo also preceded that of the Barbaro family in Catanzaro with the House of Grimaldi, who also had business interests in the town. The Barbaro family's baronial rights in Catanzaro were also shared with the House of Scalfaro. On June 2, 1814, Raffaele Aloisio Scalfaro was made Baron of the Provincial Legion of Calabria, a member of the Albergo of the Barbaro family. The history of this complex political arrangement is still visible in Catanzaro today. On the outskirts of the town is Via Grimaldi leading into Piazza Grimaldi. In the other direction are Via Barbaro and Via Scalfaro. The eastern boarder of Catanzaro is framed by Villa Trieste, referencing the Barbaro family's pre-Venetian home.[34] [35] [36]

The period that followed also became a time of change. Italian unification meant noble Barbaro family members were serving in the Italian War of Independence. Count Antonio Barbaro (1804-1884) was a major who would later die of the cholera epidemic in the region. Count Francesco Barbaro, born in 1898, was an alpini receiving the medal of honor in WWI. The early 20th century also became a time that the family became involved with the new fields of aviation and aerospace engineering, following other aristocrats of the region, such as Prince Fulco Ruffo di Calabria who was a WWI ace serving in the same squadron as Count Francesco Baracca, Italy's Ace of Aces, and Count Pier Ruggiero Piccio who would marry an American heiress from Chicago. For the noble Barbaro family, their aviation great was Count Aldo Barbaro who in 1926 would achieve the first recorded flight to the top of Lake Titicaca Peru at a height of 4000 m. Aldo Barbaro would be the last Noble Count of his line, with only a Princely Count remaining today. Aldo Barbaro was also honored in Catazaro by having Via Barbaro officially changed to Via Aldo Barbaro. Following WWII, the Venetian noble Barbaro family no longer produced raw silk within their Southern Italian holdings, and the family also began designating only one representative at a time to be the official holder of the family's titled name, the figurehead of the House. While in Rome, they were involved with fashion design, finished silks and luxury textiles, capitalizing on the haute couture activities within the city. Finally, they arrived in America and collaborated with art museums. One of the family's masterpieces, Palazzo Dario by Claude Monet, became part of the permanent collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. Today, the family's princely count, American born, uses both Albergo and Barbaro as surnames, the former in the manner of a courtesy title, derived from the House's baronial title, and the latter as the proper surname of the family's substantive title. [37]

Notable Members

Roman Roots

The noble Barbaro family of Venice is one of Western Civilization's oldest families with an officially recorded history of ancient origins as part of their recognized genealogy. The family was originally of one of the gens of ancient Rome who came from consuls of the early republic. Often, described as being of the Catellia, the family is connected to the Roman consul of Catulus, or more specifically, Quintus Lutatius Catulus who was originally born of the aristocratic house of Julii as Sextus Julius Caesar, an ancestor of Rome's first dictator. Quintus Lutatius Catulus may have been one of the few members from early Rome to have a lineage survive beyond Rome's republican era. Both the Julii and Catulan families claim divinity, the former having sprung from the goddess Venus (mythology), the latter being incarnated into the god Mars (mythology) following the victory of Gaius Lutatius Catulus in the Battle of the Aegates Islands. Thereby, fueling the Barbaro myth of being a family "without any mortal beginnings and having no true end to their remembrance". [38] [39]

From 303-311, the Barbaro family is officially recorded within their genealogy to have taken a stand against the emperor Diocletian for his persecution of the Christians, later deciding to leave Rome in favor of Istria, then arriving in Trieste by 706, and finally arriving in Venice during the year of 868. They were immediately made nobility of Venice's "Old Families" and took on the name Barbaro as a reminder of their stand against "barbarus" Diocletian. The family honors Marco (c.1121) as the father of their Venetian noble House due to he being the one that created the family's coat of arms- their genealogy typically begins with him. However, some curious earlier Barbaro family members are also officially recorded within their genealogy, such as Johannes Barbaro the Prester, who may have been the mysterious Prester John of medieval myth. In 982 Johannes Barbaro is recorded to have officially paid for the building of Santo Zorzi church in Venice, with a signature by his own hand as "Johannes the Prester", giving some credibility to the possibility of a real Prester John's existence.[40]


Notable Patricians of the Noble Venetian House of Barbaro: From Marco Barbaro (c. 1121) to the Fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797

Acting Heads

SAN GIORGIO BRANCH: Anthony Cremona Barbaro (1955-), The 9th Marquis of St. George

ALBERGO BRANCH: Vitus Sebastian Barbaro (1973-), His Illustrious Highness The 5th Princely Count of the Grand Principality of Transylvania, Patrician of Venice, and Baron dell'Albergo

Related Topics

  • Jacopo de Barbari: 16th century artist often known as "Barbaro"-unrelated to the noble Barbaro family.

Notes

  1. ^ Zorzi, Alvise, "The Patricians: Born to Rule" in Venice 697-1797: A City, A Republic, An Empire (New York, Overlook 2001) p. 52. ISBN 1-58567-132-0
  2. ^ Zorzi, Venice 679- 1797 [Ibid.] p. 52.
  3. ^ Hobson, Anthony, "Villa Barbaro", in Great Houses of Europe, ed. Sacheverell Sitwell (London: Weidenfeld, 1961), p. 91. ISBN 0-600-33843-6
  4. ^ Zorzi, Venice 697-1797 [Ibid.] p.278
  5. ^ Zorzi, Alvise, "Palazzo Barbaro at San Vidal: Barbaro Family Coat of Arms" in Venetian Palaces (New York, Rizzoli 1990) p.222 ISBN 0-8478-1200-6
  6. ^ Zorzi, Venetian Palaces [Ibid.] p.222
  7. ^ Zorzi, Venetian Palaces [Ibid.] p.222
  8. ^ Hobson [Ibid.] p. 89-97
  9. ^ Hobson [Ibid.] p.93.
  10. ^ Dario Palace
  11. ^ Tafuri, Manfredo, Venice and the Renaissance, trans. Jessica Levine (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989. ISBN 0262700549
  12. ^ Romanelli[Ibid.] p.343
  13. ^ Placzek, Adolf K., Andrea Palladio; The Four books of Architecture (New York, Dover 1965) p.170-173 ISBN 0-486-21308-0
  14. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.341
  15. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.340-345
  16. ^ Romanelli, Giandomenico, Venice, Art & Architecture [vol. II] (Cologne, Konemann 1997) p.642 ISBN 3-89508-593-6
  17. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.642
  18. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.642
  19. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.644
  20. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.644
  21. ^ Schneider, Norbert, Still Life (New York, Taschen) p.157 ISBN 3-8228-6523-0
  22. ^ Boulton, Susie & Catling, Christopher; Venice & The Veneto (Dorling Kindersley, London 1995) p.178 ISBN 1-56458-861-0
  23. ^ Boulton [Ibid.] p.178
  24. ^ Spreti, [Ibid.] p.277
  25. ^ Kaminski, Marion, "The End: Venice's Final Struggle for Independence" in Venice (Cologne, Konemann 1999) p.190 ISBN 3-8290-2667-6
  26. ^ Spretti [Ibid.] p.276
  27. ^ Spretti [Ibid.] p.278
  28. ^ Spreti [Ibid.} p.276
  29. ^ Kaminski [Ibid.] p.191-192
  30. ^ Spreti [Ibid.]
  31. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  32. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  33. ^ Duggan, Christopher, "The Emergence of the National Question" in A Concise History of Italy, (London, Cambridge University Press 2000) p.99 ISBN 0-521-40285-9
  34. ^ Spreti, [Ibid.] p.275
  35. ^ Gillman, Helen "Calabria-Catanzaro" in Italy (Australia, Lonely Planet 1998) p.690 ISBN 0-86442-492-2
  36. ^ Nicolson, Harold, "The Italian and German Settlements" in The Congress of Vienna, A study in Allied Unity: 1812-1822 (New York, Grove Press 1946) p.182-199 ISBN 0-8021-3744-x
  37. ^ Spretti [Ibid.] p. 278, p.863
  38. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.274
  39. ^ Gruen, Erich, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic, (Berkeley, University of California Press 1995) ISBN 0-520-20153-1
  40. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.274
  41. ^ Zorzi, Venetian Palaces [Ibid.] p.222
  42. ^ Spreti, Vittorio, "Enciclopedia Storico Nobilare Italiana (B) p. 275
  43. ^ Spreti [Ibid] p.275
  44. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  45. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  46. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  47. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  48. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  49. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  50. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  51. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.275
  52. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  53. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  54. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  55. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  56. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  57. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  58. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  59. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  60. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  61. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p. 276
  62. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.276
  63. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  64. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  65. ^ Romanelli [Ibid.] p.642
  66. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  67. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  68. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
  69. ^ Spreti [Ibid.] p.277
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