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Rajneesh movement

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Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh and disciples in darshan, Poona 1977

The Rajneesh movement is a term used by Hugh B. Urban[1] and other commentators to refer collectively to persons inspired by the Indian mystic Osho (formerly known as Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, 1931–1990), particularly initiated disciples, referred to as neo-sannyasins.[2] These were formerly known as Rajneeshees or "Orange People" because of the orange and later red, maroon and pink clothes they used from 1970 until 1985.[3] Members of the movement are sometimes called Oshoites in the Indian press.[4][5]

The movement was controversial in the 1970s and 1980s, due to its founder's hostility to traditional values, first in India and later in the United States of America, particularly the state of Oregon where the movement had a large intentional community in the early 1980s.[6] In the USSR the movement was banned as being contrary to "positive aspects of Indian culture and to the aims of the youth protest movement in Western countries" that were being subverted by Rajneesh, who was portrayed as a reactionary religious ideologist of the monopolistic bourgeoisie of India, promoting the ideas of the consumer society in a traditional Hindu guise.[7]

Tensions peaked in Oregon when leading members of the Oregon commune were arrested for a number of crimes including a bioterror attack. Citizens of The Dalles, Oregon were subjected to deliberate salmonella food poisoning, undertaken to influence the outcome of a local election.[6] Osho was deported from the United States in 1985 for immigration violations and the movement's headquarters eventually returned to Pune, India.

The movement in India gradually received a more positive response from the surrounding society, especially after its founder's death in 1990.[8][9] Today the Osho International Foundation (OIF), managed by an "Inner Circle" set up by Osho before his death, administers Osho's estate and operates the Osho International Meditation Resort in Pune, India.[9][10] Towards the late 1990s a rift within the movement saw a rival collective challenging both OIF's copyright hold over Rajneesh's works and the validity of its royalty claims on publishing or reprinting of material.[8][11][12] In America, in Jauary 2009, following a 10-year legal battle with Osho Friends International (OFI), the exclusive rights that OIF held over the trademark OSHO were lost.[13] There are a number of smaller Osho centres in India and around the world including the USA, United Kingdom, Germany, and the Netherlands [citation needed].

Origins

Main article: Osho (Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh)

Rajneesh began speaking in public in 1958, while still a lecturer (later professor) in philosophy at Jabalpur University, and lectured throughout India during the 1960s promoting meditation and the ideals of free love,[14] a social movement based on a civil libertarian philosophy that rejects state regulation and religious interference in personal relationships, rejecting marriage as a form of social bondage, especially for women.[15][16] He criticised socialism and Gandhi and championed capitalism, science, technology and birth control,[17], warning against over-population and criticising religious teachings that promote poverty and subjection. His ideas were highly controversial in India and the movement later also caused controversy in Western Europe and the United States.[18]

He became known as "Acharya Rajneesh", "Acharya" meaning "teacher or professor" and "Rajneesh" being a childhood nickname.[19] During the early 1960s Rajneesh attracted a following that included wealthy merchants and businessmen who were offering donations for private consultations. By 1964 a group of wealthy backers had initiated an educational trust to support Rajneesh and aid in the running of meditation retreats.[20] The association that was formed at this time was known as the Life Awakening Movement (Jivan Jagruti Andolan).[21] As Goldman expresses it, his rapidly growing clientele suggests "that he was an unusually talented spiritual therapist" and around this time he "acquired a business manager" from the upper echelons of Indian society, a politically well-connected woman who would function as his personal secretary and organisational chief and who would become Rajneesh's first real sannyasin[22], taking the name Ma Yoga Laxmi.[23][24][25] Laxmi, the daughter of a key supporter of the National Congress Party with close ties to Gandhi, Nehru and Morarji Desai,[26][27] would retain this role for almost 15 years.[28]

Symbol of the Life Awakening Movement, circa 1970

In 1966 University of Jabalpur officials forced Rajneesh's resignation and he shifted his attention to his role as a spiritual teacher while supporting himself through lectures, meditation camps and private counselling (Darśana or Darshan) for his wealthier followers.[23] In 1971[citation needed] he initiated 6 of his disciples, thereafter referred to as neo-sannyasins, which led to the emergence of the Neo-Sanyas International Movement.[29] Rajneesh differentiated from traditional sannyasa (renunciation) in that he admitted women and viewed renunciation as a process of renouncing ego but not the world. Disciples nevertheless adopted a traditional ochre robe, mala and change of name. At this time Rajneesh adopted the title Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh.[30]

By 1972 there were already 3,800 sannyasins in India. The total for the rest of the world was then 134, including 56 from the USA, sixteen each from Britain and Germany, twelve each from Italy and the Philippines, eight Canadians, four Kenyans, two Danes and one each from France, Holland, Australia, Greece, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland.[31]

After a house was purchased for him in Poona in 1974, an ashram was founded and membership of the movement grew.[14] More western seekers began to visit, including therapists from the Human Potential Movement who began to run group therapy at the ashram. Rajnessh discoursed daily upon religious scriptures, combining elements of Western philosophy, jokes and personal anecdotes. He commented on Hinduism, Zen and other religious sources and Western psychotherapeutic approaches.[18][32]

The ashram in Pune became the Osho International Meditation Resort, one of India's main tourist attractions.[33] Describing itself as the Esalen of the East, it teaches a variety of spiritual techniques from a broad range of traditions and promotes itself as a spiritual oasis, a "sacred space" for discovering one's self and uniting the desires of body and mind in a beautiful resort environment.[34] According to press reports, it attracts some 200,000 people from all over the world each year;[35][36] prominent visitors have included politicians, media personalities and the Dalai Lama.[33]

Beliefs and practices

Religion

A 1972 monograph[31] outlined Rajneesh's concept of sannyas. It was to be a worldwide movement, rooted in life affirmation, playful and joyful, based in science rather than belief and dogma, not relying on ideology and philosophy but on practices, techniques and methods, aiming to offer every individual the chance to discover and choose their own proper religious path, leading to an essential, universal religiousness. It would be open to people of all religions or of none, experimenting with the inner methods of all religions in their pure, original form, not seeking to synthesise them but to provide facilities whereby each might be revived, maintained and defended, its lost and hidden secrets rediscovered. The movement would not seek to create any new religion.

Logo of Neo-Sannyas International, late 1970s

To accomplish this communities would be founded around the world and groups of sannyasins would tour the world to demonstrate techniques of meditation and aid seekers. Other groups would perform kirtan and conduct experiments in healing. Communities would run their own businesses and various publishing companies would be founded. A central International University of Meditation would have branches all over the world and run meditation camps, while study groups would investigate the key texts of Tantra, Taoism, Hinduism and other traditions.

In late 1981, Rajneesh, through his secretary Ma Anand Sheela, announced the inception of the 'religion of Rajneeshism', the foundation of which would be fragments taken from various discourses and interviews Rajneesh had given over the years.[37] In July, 1983 Rajneesh Foundation International published a book entitled Rajneeshism: An introduction to Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh and His Religion,"[38] in an attempt to systematize Rajneesh's religious teachings and institutionalise the movement. Despite this, the publication claimed that Rajneeshism was not a religion, but rather "...a religionless religion...only a quality of love, silence, meditation and prayerfulness".[39] Carter (1990) notes that the motivation for formalising Rajneesh's teachings are not easy to determine but might perhaps have been tied to the fact that a visa application had been made to the Immigration and Naturalization Service to obtain "religious worker" status for Rajneesh.[40]

In the last week of September 1985, Sheela having fled in disgrace, Rajneesh declared that "Rajneeshism" and "Rajneeshees" no longer existed and that anything bearing the name Rajneeshism would be dismantled. [41] His disciples set fire to 5,000 copies of "Book of Rajneeshism", a 78-page compilation of his teachings that had defined Rajneeshism as "a religionless religion".[41][42] Osho said he ordered the book-burning to rid the sect of the last traces of the influence of Sheela.[42] Sheela's robes were also "added to the bonfire".[42]

Society

Marriage and the family

In 1984, the average age of members in the Rajneesh movement was 34, and 64 percent of the followers had a four-year college degree.[43] Although the movement was without clearly-defined shared values[44] it was well-known that Rajneesh discouraged marrying and having children[45] and saw families as inherently prone to dysfunction and destructiveness. No children were born at the commune in Oregon or the commune in England [46] and contraception, sterilization, and abortion were accepted.[47] According to Pike, some women justified leaving their children when moving to the ashram by reasoning that spiritual development was more important.[47]

Intentional community

See also: Rajneeshpuram

Rajneesh held that families, large cities and nations would ultimately be replaced by small communities with a communal way of life. By 1972 small communes of disciples existed in India and Kenya, and a larger one, to be known as Anand Shila was planned as a "permanent world headquarters" in India. However, this plan was repeatedly thwarted. Large communes were planned in the west. The Rajneesh organization bought the 64,229-acre (259.93 km2) Big Muddy Ranch located near Antelope, Oregon in July 1981, renaming it "Rancho Rajneesh" and later Rajneeshpuram.[14][48] Initially, approximately 2,000 people took up residence in the intentional community and Rajneesh abruptly, rapidly and without warning,[49] moved there too.[43] The organization purchased a reception hotel in Portland that, in July 1983, was bombed by the radical Islamic group Jamaat ul-Fuqra, a group with connections to Pakistani Kashmir that sought to attack "soft" targets in the USA that had Indian connections.[50]

The Rajneesh movement clashed with Oregon officials and government while at Rajneeshpuram, resulting in tensions within the commune itself.[51] A siege mentality set in among the commune's leaders and intimidation and authoritarianism ensued. Disillusioned followers began to leave the organization, commune members were instructed to break off communications with anyone that chose to leave.[51]

Commerce

During the movement's stay in Oregon, the popular press reported widely on the large collection of Rolls Royce cars Rajneesh had amassed (almost 90 at the final count).[14] James S. Gordon reported that some sannyasins saw the cars as an unmatched tool for obtaining publicity, others as a good business investment or as a test, while others said they expressed Rajneesh's scorn for middle-class aspirations and yet others said that they were indicative of the love of his disciples.[52] Gordon opined that what Rajneesh loved most about the Rolls-Royces, apart from their comfort, was "the anger and envy that his possession of so many – so absurdly, unnecessarily, outrageously many – of them aroused."[52] and wrote of a popular bumper sticker among sannyasins; "Jesus Saves. Moses Invests. Bhagwan Spends."

Hugh B. Urban comments that "one of the most astonishing features of the early Rajneesh movement was its remarkable success as a business enterprise".[53] It "developed an extremely effective and profitable corporate structure", and "by the 1980s, the movement had evolved into a complex, interlocking network of corporations, with an astonishing number of both spiritual and secular businesses worldwide, offering everything from yoga and psychological counseling to cleaning services."[1] It has been estimated that at least 120 million dollars were generated during the movements time in Oregon, a period when the acquisition of capital, donation collection, and legal work, were a primary concern.[54]

By the mid 1980s the movement, with the assistance of a sophisticated legal and business infrastructure, had created a corporate machine that consisted of various front companies and subsidiaries.[53] At this time the three main identifiable organisations within the Rajneesh movement were the Ranch Church or Rajneesh Foundation International (RFI), which was managed through the Rajneesh Investment Corporation (RIC), and the Rajneesh Neo-Sannyasin International Corporation (RNSIC). The umbrella organisation that oversaw all investment activities, a company incorporated in the UK but based in Zurich, was Rajneesh Services International Ltd. There were also smaller organisations such as Rajneesh Travel Corp, Rajneesh Community Holdings, and the Rajneesh Modern Car Collection Trust; the sole purpose of which was to deal with Rolls Royce acquisition and rental.[54][55]

By the early 21st century members of the movement were running stress management seminars for corporate clients such as BMW, with a reported (2000) revenue between $15 and $45 million annually in the U.S.[56]

Current status

The movement has survived the guru's death.[1] The organisation "Osho International", the successor to "Neo-Sannyas International", now propagates his views, operating once more out of the Poona commune in India[14] and the movement began to communicate on the Internet.[57]

Urban adds that the most surprising feature of the Rajneesh phenomenon lies in Rajneesh's "remarkable apotheosis upon his return to India", which resulted in his achieving even more success in his homeland than before.[58] According to Urban, his followers had succeeded in portraying Rajneesh as a martyr, promoting the view that "[the Ranch] was crushed from without by the Attorney General's office ... like the marines in Lebanon, the Ranch was hit by hardball opposition and driven out."[58][59] Sociologist Stephen Hunt, on the other hand, writes in Alternative Religions (2003) that "the movement has declined since 1985, and some would argue it is now, for all intents and purposes, defunct."[14]

After Rajneesh's death various disagreements, relating to his wishes and his legacy, ensued. This led to the formation of a number of rival collectives. One of the central disagreements related to Osho International Foundation's copyright control over Rajneesh's works.[8][12] One group, Osho Friends International, spent 10 years challenging the OIF's use of the title OSHO as an exclusive trademark. In America, on January 13, 2009, the exclusive rights that OIF held over the trademark were finally lost. OIF filed a Notice of Appeal on March 12, but eventually filed for withdrawal in the Court of Appeals on June 19, therefore leaving the trademarks of Osho in the US canceled.[60]

People associated with the movement

Literature and thought

  • Elfie Donnelly, award-winning Anglo-Austrian children's book author, joined the movement in the 1980s and was among the disciples Osho appointed to the "Inner Circle" entrusted with administering his estate after his death.[61]
  • Joachim-Ernst Berendt (died 2000), jazz expert, journalist and author, became a member of the movement; when Osho died in 1990, he wrote an obituary calling him the "master of the heart" as well as "the holiest scoundrel I ever knew".[62]
  • Tim Guest (died 2009), journalist and author, grew up in the movement and later wrote a critical book, My Life in Orange, about his difficult childhood.[63]
  • Peter Sloterdijk, German philosopher, joined the movement in the 70s; in interviews given in 2006, he credited the experience with having had a fundamental, beneficial and still ongoing effect on his outlook on life.[64]

Spirituality and psychology

Performance arts

  • Georg Deuter (Swami Chaitanya Hari). Musician of the Rajneesh movement. He composed the music that accompanies Osho's meditations, recording in Pune and later at the Rajneeshpuram commune in Oregon.[72][73]
  • German pop singer Nena said in 2009 that she had become a "fan" of Osho, his books and meditation techniques, which she had discovered a few years before.[75]

Politics

Others

  • Pratiksha Apurv, a fashion designer, is Osho's niece and has been a movement member since childhood.[4]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Urban 2005, p. 171
  2. ^ Idinopulos & Yonan 1996, p. 13
  3. ^ Chryssides 1999, p. 208
  4. ^ a b http://www.magnamags.com/index.php/200904093922/savvy/interviews/pratiksha-apurv.html
  5. ^ Oshoites amused by American terrorism tag, Times of India
  6. ^ a b Lewis & Petersen 2005, pp. 124–127
  7. ^ A. A. Tkacheva, Counter-culture Slogans in the System of Right Wing Radicalism in India (1986) abstract
  8. ^ a b c Lewis & Petersen 2004, p. 120
  9. ^ a b Urban 2005, pp. 182–183
  10. ^ Lewis & Petersen 2005, pp. 133–134
  11. ^ Royalty Ruckus originally published in India Today July 03, 2000. Retrieved on December 7th, 2009.
  12. ^ a b Fox 2002, pp. 44–45
  13. ^ Osho trademark: OIF appeal dismissed, Indian Express, July 18th, 2009.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Hunt 2003, p. 127
  15. ^ The Handbook of the Oneida Community claims to have coined the term around 1850, and laments that its use was appropriated by socialists to attack marriage, an institution that they felt protected women and children from abandonment
  16. ^ McElroy, Wendy. "The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism." Libertarian Enterprise .19 (1996): 1.
  17. ^ FitzGerald, Frances (29 September 1986), "Rajneeshpuram", The New Yorker, p. 77.
  18. ^ a b Clarke 2006, p. 253
  19. ^ Gordon 1987, pp. 26–27
  20. ^ Goldman, Marion S. (2005), "When Leaders Dissolve: Considering Controversy and Stagnation in the Osho Rajneesh Movement", in Lewis, James R., Jesper Aagaard Petersen, Controversial new religions, Oxford University Press US, page 119.
  21. ^ Osho (2000), Autobiography of a Spiritually Incorrect Mystic, New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin, ISBN 0-312-25457-1, p224
  22. ^ Goldman, Marion S. (2005), page 119.
  23. ^ a b Lewis & Petersen 2004, p. 122 Cite error: The named reference "Lewis" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  24. ^ Palmer & Sharma 1993, p. 30
  25. ^ Carter 1990, p. 44
  26. ^ Fitzgerald 1986, p. 77
  27. ^ Mehta 1993, p. 89
  28. ^ Gordon 1987, p. 93
  29. ^ Metha 1993, p. 91
  30. ^ Fitzgerald 1986, p. 78
  31. ^ a b Yoga Chinmaya, Neo-sannyas International: Visions and Activities, Life Awakening Movement Publications, Bombay 1972.
  32. ^ Goldman 2007, p. 172
  33. ^ a b Fox 2002, p. 41
  34. ^ Forsthoefel & Humes 2005, pp. 182–183
  35. ^ "Osho? Oh No!". Retrieved 2009-01-16.
  36. ^ San Francisco Chronicle article dated 29 Aug. 2004
  37. ^ Metha 1993, p. 111
  38. ^ Carter 1990, p. 300
  39. ^ Carter 1990, p. 185
  40. ^ Carter 1990, p. 186
  41. ^ a b Sally Carpenter Hale, Associated Press (October 1, 1985). "Rajneesh renouncing his cult's religion". The Ledger. p. 8A. {{cite news}}: External link in |title= (help)
  42. ^ a b c Associated Press (October 2, 1985). "Guru's arrest not imminent". Spokane Chronicle. p. D6.
  43. ^ a b Goldman 1997, p. 209
  44. ^ Carter, Lewis F. (1990), Charisma and Control in Rajneeshpuram: A Community without Shared Values, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-38554-7.
  45. ^ Pike 2007, p. 222
  46. ^ Pike 2007, p. 224
  47. ^ a b Pike 2007, p. 223
  48. ^ Latkin et al. 1994, pp. 65–74
  49. ^ Reader 1996, p. 102
  50. ^ Mira L. Boland, Sheikh Gilani's American Disciples, "The Weekly Standard" 03/18/2002
  51. ^ a b Reader 1996, p. 104
  52. ^ a b Gordon 1987, pp. 114–115
  53. ^ a b Urban 2005, p. 179
  54. ^ a b Urban 2005, p. 180
  55. ^ Wright 1985, pp. 141–146
  56. ^ Carrette & King 2004, p. 154
  57. ^ Goldman 2005, p. 120
  58. ^ a b Urban 2005, p. 181
  59. ^ Palmer & Sharma 1993, pp. 155–158
  60. ^ Osho trademark:OIF appeal dismissed, Indian Express, July 18th, 2009.
  61. ^ Bhagwan: Glaube und Mammon, Der Spiegel, 6 February 1984 Template:De icon
  62. ^ Süss 1996, pp. 27, 177
  63. ^ Publishers Weekly staff (January 10, 2005). "My Life in Orange: Growing Up with the Guru". Publishers Weekly (Reed Business Information) 252 (2): p. 48.
  64. ^ Die Tageszeitung interview dd. 13 June 2006, interview in Lettre International Template:De icon
  65. ^ Margot Anand: An Interview with Virginia Lee, margotanand.com
  66. ^ Kuriansky 2002, p. 310
  67. ^ Kakar, Sudhir (1984). Shamans, Mystics and Doctors: A Psychological Inquiry into India and Its Healing Traditions, ISBN 0-226-42279-8 p 202
  68. ^ http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/tarot-card-reader-ma-prem-usha-dead_10072763.html
  69. ^ Davies, Barbara (July 25, 2006). "The intriguing story of Dr Who's sidekick". London: The Daily Mail. Retrieved December 12, 2009.
  70. ^ The Examiner, Volumes 17-19- Page 32. The Examiner. Retrieved December 12, 2009.
  71. ^ "Religion: God Sir at Esalen East". Time.com. January 16, 1978. Retrieved December 12, 2009.
  72. ^ The New Age movement and the biblical worldview:conflict and dialogue.John P. Newport. William B Eerdmans Publishing Co. Retrieved December 13, 2009.
  73. ^ The miracle of music therapy, Rajendar Menen. Pushtak Mahal. Retrieved December 13, 2009.
  74. ^ THE MIKE EDWARDS INTERVIEW
  75. ^ Template:De icon Nena bekennt sich als Fan des Bhagwan-Gurus Osho, Die Welt, 26 September 2009
  76. ^ The uncensored Vinod Khanna, Times of India, 2002-07-27
  77. ^ http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2010
  78. ^ Prince Georg Wilhelm of Hanover obituary Times Online. January 18, 2006
  79. ^ Wilhelm Bittorf (3 February 1981). "Ein Welfe im Nirwana: Der Tod eines deutschen Prinzen, der für Bhagwan lebte". Der Spiegel.Retrieved 2008-09-20.

References

  • Chryssides, George D. (1999), "Rajneesh/Osho", Exploring new religions, Cassell, ISBN 0304336513
  • Carrette, Jeremy; King, Richard (2004), Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-41530-209-9
  • Carter, Lewis F. (1990), Charisma and Control in Rajneeshpuram: A Community without Shared Values, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-38554-7 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help).
  • Clarke, Peter Bernard (2006), New religions in global perspective: a study of religious change in the modern world, Routledge, ISBN 0415257484
  • FitzGerald, Frances (22 September 1986), "Rajneeshpuram", The New Yorker{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
  • Fox, Judith M. (2002), Osho Rajneesh – Studies in Contemporary Religion Series, No. 4, Salt Lake City: Signature Books, ISBN 1-56085-156-2 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Goldman, Marion S. (1997), "Narcissistic Vulnerability, Transference, and Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh", in Janet Liebman Jacobs, Donald Capps (ed.), Religion, society, and psychoanalysis: readings in contemporary theory, Westview Press, ISBN 0813326486
  • Goldman, Marion S. (2005), "When Leaders Dissolve: Considering Controversy and Stagnation in the Osho Rajneesh Movement", in Lewis, James R., Jesper Aagaard Petersen (ed.), Controversial new religions, Oxford University Press US, ISBN 0195156838{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Goldman, Marion S. (2007), "Avoiding Mass Violence at Rajneeshpuram", in Wellman, James K. (ed.), Belief and bloodshed: religion and violence across time and tradition, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 9780742558243
  • Hunt, Stephen (2003), "Rajneeshees", Alternative religions: a sociological introduction, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., ISBN 0754634108
  • Gordon, James S. (1987), The Golden Guru, Lexington, MA: The Stephen Greene Press, ISBN 0-8289-0630-0 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Idinopulos, Thomas A.; Yonan, Edward A. (1996), The sacred and its scholars: comparative methodologies for the study of primary religious data, BRILL, ISBN 9004106235
  • Kuriansky, Judith (2002), The Complete Idiot's Guide to Tantric Sex, Penguin USA, ISBN 9780028641751
  • Latkin, Carl A.; Sundberg, Norman D.; Littman, Richard A.; Katsikis, Melissa G.; Hagan, Richard A. (1994), "Feelings after the fall: former Rajneeshpuram Commune members' perceptions of and affiliation with the Rajneeshee movement", Sociology of Religion, 55 (1), doi:10.2307/3712176
  • Lewis, James R.; Petersen, Jesper Aagaard (eds.) (2005), Controversial New Religions, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 019515682X {{citation}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  • Mehta, Uday (1993), Modern Godmen in India: A Sociological Appraisal, Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 81-7154-708-7 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help).
  • Palmer, Susan J.; Sharma, Arvind (eds.) (1993), The Rajneesh Papers: Studies in a New Religious Movement, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1080-5 {{citation}}: |first2= has generic name (help)
  • Pike, Sarah M. (2007), "Gender in New Religions", in Bromley, David G. (ed.), Teaching new religious movements, Oxford University Press US, ISBN 0195177290
  • Reader, Ian (1996), A Poisonous Cocktail? Aum Shinrikyo's Path to Violence, Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, ISBN 8787062550
  • Süss, Joachim (1996), Bhagwans Erbe: Die Osho-Bewegung heute, Munich: Claudius Verlag, ISBN 3-532-64010-4 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Template:De icon.
  • Urban, Hugh B. (2005), "Osho, From Sex Guru to Guru of the Rich: The Spiritual Logic of Late Capitalism", in Forsthoefel, Thomas A.; Cynthia Ann Humes (ed.), Gurus in America, SUNY Press, ISBN 9780791465738{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  • Wright, Charles (1985), Oranges & lemmings: the story behind Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, Richmond Victoria: Greenhouse Publications Pty Ltd, pp. 166 pages, ISBN 0864360126

Further reading

  • Goldman, Marion S. (1999), Passionate Journeys – Why Successful Women Joined a Cult, The University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0472111019
  • Palmer, Susan Jean (1994), Moon Sisters, Krishna Mother, Rajneesh Lovers: Women's Roles in New Religions, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 9-780815-602972
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