Sambucus

Sambucus
European Black Elder (Sambucus nigra)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Dipsacales
Family:	Adoxaceae
Genus:	Sambucus L.
Species
See text

Sambucus (elder or elderberry) is a genus of between 5 and 30 species of shrubs or small trees in the moschatel family, Adoxaceae. It was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified due to genetic evidence. Two of its species are herbaceous.

The genus is native in temperate-to-subtropical regions of both the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. It is more widespread in the Northern Hemisphere; its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America.

The leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (rarely 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 cm (2.0–11.8 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).

Species groups

Sambucus canadensis showing the complex branching of the inflorescence.

Sambucus canadensis showing the complex branching of the inflorescence.

Elderberry cultivation in Austria

• The black-berried elder complex is variously treated as a single species Sambucus nigra found in the warmer parts of Europe and North America with several regional varieties or subspecies, or else as a group of several similar species. The flowers are in flat corymbs, and the berries are black to glaucous blue; they are larger shrubs, reaching 3–8 m (9.8–26.2 ft) tall, occasionally small trees up to 15 m (49 ft) tall and with a stem diameter of up to 30–60 cm (12–24 in).
  • Sambucus australis (Southern Elder; temperate eastern South America)
  • Sambucus canadensis (syn. S. nigra ssp canadensis; American Elder; eastern North America; with blue-black berries)
  • Sambucus cerulea (syn. S. caerulea, S. glauca; Blue Elderberry; western North America; dark blue-black berries with glaucous bloom on surface, giving them a sky-blue appearance)
  • Sambucus javanica (Chinese Elder; southeastern Asia)
  • Sambucus nigra (Elder or Black Elder; Europe and western Asia; with black berries) This is the species most often used medicinally.
  • Sambucus lanceolata (Madeira Elder; Madeira Island; with black berries)
  • Sambucus mexicana (Mexican Elder; Sonoran Desert; with black berries)
  • Sambucus palmensis (Canary Islands Elder; Canary Islands; with black berries)
  • Sambucus peruviana (Peruvian Elder; northwest South America; with black berries)
  • Sambucus simpsonii (Florida Elder; southeastern United States; with blue-black berries)
  • Sambucus velutina (Velvet Elder; southwestern North America; with blue-black berries)

• The Blackberry Elder Sambucus melanocarpa of western North America is intermediate between the preceding and next groups. The flowers are in rounded panicles, but the berries are black; it is a small shrub, rarely exceeding 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) tall. Some botanists include it in the red-berried elder group.

• The red-berried elder complex is variously treated as a single species Sambucus racemosa found throughout the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere with several regional varieties or subspecies, or else as a group of several similar species. The flowers are in rounded panicles, and the berries are bright red; they are smaller shrubs, rarely exceeding 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) tall.
  • Sambucus callicarpa (Pacific Coast Red Elderberry; west coast of North America)
  • Sambucus chinensis (Chinese Red Elder; eastern Asia, in mountains)
  • Sambucus latipinna (Korean Red Elder; Korea, southeast Siberia)
  • Sambucus microbotrys (Mountain Red Elder; southwest North America, in mountains)
  • Sambucus pubens (American Red Elder; northern North America)
  • Sambucus racemosa (European Red Elder or Red-berried Elder; northern Europe, northwest Asia)
  • Sambucus sieboldiana (Japanese Red Elder; Japan and Korea)
  • Sambucus tigranii (Caucasus Red Elder; southwest Asia, in mountains)
  • Sambucus williamsii (North China Red Elder; northeast Asia)

• The Australian elder group comprises two species from Australasia. The flowers are in rounded panicles, and the berries white or yellow; they are shrubs growing to 3 m (9.8 ft) high.
  • Sambucus australasica (Yellow Elder; New Guinea, eastern Australia)
  • Sambucus gaudichaudiana (Australian Elder or White Elder; shady areas of south eastern Australia)

• The dwarf elders are, by contrast to the other species, herbaceous plants, producing new stems each year from a perennial root system; they grow to 1.5–2 m (4.9–6.6 ft) tall, each stem terminating in a large flat umbel which matures into a dense cluster of glossy berries.
  • Sambucus adnata (Asian Dwarf Elder; Himalaya and eastern Asia; berries red)
  • Sambucus ebulus (European Dwarf Elder; central and southern Europe, northwest Africa and southwest Asia; berries black)

Other species:

• Sambucus melanocarpa Gray (western elder)

• Sambucus neomexicana Wooton (New Mexico elder)

• Sambucus mexicana Presl. (Mexican elderberry; western Texas to southern California and adjacent Mexico (tapiro in Spanish))

• Sambucus velutina Dur. & Hilg. (velvet elder; mountains of western Arizona)

• Sambucus coerula Raf.(western elder; British Columbia to Arizona and California)

Uses

Food

Ripening elderberries.

The flowers of Sambucus nigra are used to produce elderflower cordial. The French, Austrians and Central Europeans produce elderflower syrup, commonly made from an extract of elderflower blossoms, which is added to pancake (Palatschinken) mixes instead of blueberries. People throughout much of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe use a similar method to make a syrup which is diluted with water and used as a drink. Based on this syrup, Fanta markets a soft drink variety called "Shokata" which is sold in 15 countries worldwide. In the United States, this French elderflower syrup is used to make elderflower marshmallows. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.

Wines, cordials and marmalade have been produced from the berries or flowers. In Italy (especially in Piedmont) and Germany, the umbels of the elderberry are batter coated, fried and then served as a dessert or a sweet lunch with a sugar and cinnamon topping. Elderberries are a key ingredient in "purple juice".

Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup.

Cultivation

Ornamental varieties of Sambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage.

Native species of elderberry are often planted by people wishing to support native butterfly and bird species.

Medicine

Black elderberry has been used medicinally for hundreds of years. Sambucus nigra may be an effective treatment for H1N1 flu. A 1995 study found: "A complete cure was achieved within 2 to 3 days in nearly 90% of the SAM-treated group and within at least 6 days in the placebo group (p < 0.001). No satisfactory medication to cure influenza type A and B is available. Considering the efficacy of the extract in vitro on all strains of influenza virus tested, the clinical results, its low cost, and absence of side-effects, this preparation could offer a possibility for safe treatment for influenza A and B." A small study published in 2004 showed that 93% of flu patients given elderberry extract were completely symptom-free within two days; those taking a placebo recovered in about six days. A 2009 study found that the H1N1 inhibition activities of the elderberry flavonoids compare favorably to the known anti-influenza activities of Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and Amantadine. A 2004 study found that symptoms of influenza A and B virus infections were relieved on average 4 days earlier and use of rescue medication was significantly less in those receiving elderberry extract compared with placebo. The study stated, "Elderberry extract seems to offer an efficient, safe and cost-effective treatment for influenza. These findings need to be confirmed in a larger study".

A 2001 study entitled "The effect of Sambucol, a black elderberry-based, natural product, on the production of human cytokines: I. Inflammatory cytokines" concluded: "We conclude from this study that, in addition to its antiviral properties, Sambucol Elderberry Extract and its formulations activate the healthy immune system by increasing inflammatory cytokine production. Sambucol might therefore be beneficial to the immune system activation and in the inflammatory process in healthy individuals or in patients with various diseases. Sambucol could also have an immunoprotective or immunostimulatory effect when administered to cancer or AIDS patients, in conjunction with chemotherapeutic or other treatments. In view of the increasing popularity of botanical supplements, such studies and investigations in vitro, in vivo and in clinical trials need to be developed."

A Modern Herbal by Mrs. M. Grieve suggests several elderberry syrup recipes:

To make Elderberry Rob [syrup], 5 lb. of fresh ripe, crushed berries are simmered with 1 lb. of loaf sugar and the juice evaporated to the thickness of honey. It is cordial, aperient and diuretic. One or two tablespoonsful mixed with a tumblerful of hot water, taken at night, promotes perspiration and is demulcent to the chest. The Rob when made can be bottled and stored for the winter. Herbalists sell it ready for use.

'Syrup of Elderberries' is made as follows: Pick the berries when throughly ripe from the stalks and stew with a little water in a jar in the oven or pan. After straining, allow 1/2 oz. of whole ginger and 18 cloves to each gallon. Boil the ingredients an hour, strain again and bottle. The syrup is an excellent cure for a cold. To about a wineglassful of Elderberry syrup, add hot water, and if liked, sugar.

Toxicity

The leaves, twigs, branches, seeds and roots contain a cyanide-inducing glycoside (a glycoside which gives rise to cyanide as the metabolism processes it). Ingesting any of these parts in sufficient quantity can cause a toxic build up of cyanide in the body.

Due to the possibility of cyanide poisoning, children should be discouraged from making whistles, slingshots or other toys from elderberry wood. In addition, "herbal teas" made with elderberry leaves (which contain cyanogenic glycosides) should be treated with high caution. However, ripe berries (pulp and skin) are safe to eat.

Ecology

The berries are a very valuable food resource for many birds. In Northern California elderberries are a favorite food for migrating Band-Tailed Pigeons. Flocks can strip an entire bush in less than an hour. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Brown-tail, Buff Ermine, Dot Moth, Emperor Moth, the Engrailed, Swallow-tailed Moth and the V-pug. The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell.

Valley elderberry longhorn beetle in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark. Larvae hatch and burrow into the stems.

Dead elder wood is the preferred habitat of the mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae, also known as "Judas' ear fungus".

The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work.

Folklore

Folklore is extensive and can be wildly conflicting depending on region.

• In some areas, the "elder tree" was supposed to ward off evil influence and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit.

• In some regions, superstition, religious belief, or tradition prohibits the cutting of certain trees for bonfires, most notably in witchcraft customs the elderberry tree; "Elder be ye Lady's tree, burn it not or cursed ye'll be" – A rhyme from the Wiccan rede.

• If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge. The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother.

In popular culture

• The most powerful wand in the Wizarding World of Harry Potter is a wand made of sambucus known as the "Elder Wand".

• In Monty Python and the Holy Grail, the keeper of the French castle taunts King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table by telling them that "[their] Father smelt of elderberries."

Further reading

• Vedel, H., & Lange, J. (1960). Trees and Bushes in Wood and Hedgerow. Methuen & Co Ltd.

External links

• Elderberry, elderflower, and why they matter (2009)
• Elder bush info and recipes from the BBC “Guide to Life, the Universe, and Everything”
• Mrs. M. Grieve, A Modern Herbal (first published in1931)
• Germplasm Resources Information Network: Sambucus
• National Institute of Health — Medline page on Sambucus nigra L.
• Template:Fr icon Sureaux Création d’une collection botanique