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Siege of Algeciras (1342–1344)

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Siege of Algeciras (1342-1344)
Part of Reconquista

Alfonso XI of Castille
Date3 August 1342 - 26 March 1344
Location
Algeciras
Result Decisive Castillian victory - conquest of the city
Belligerents
King of Fez
King of Granada		 Crown of Castille'
Republic of Genoa
King of Aragon
King of Portugal
King of Navarre
European crusaders
Commanders and leaders
Abu al-Hasan
Yusuf I		 Alfonso XI

The Siege of Algeciras (1342-1344) was undertaken by the Castillian forces of Alfonso XI assisted by the fleets of the Kingdom of Aragon and the Republic of Genoa during the Reconquista to capture the Muslim city of Al-Jazeera Al-Khadra, called Algeciras by Christians, the main port on the European side of the Strait of Gibraltar. The siege stretched out for twenty months, during which the population of the city, about 30,000 people including civilians and Berber soldiers, suffered from a tight blockade that prevented the entry of food into the city. On 26 March 1344, after the defeat in the plains of the Palmones River of the army the Kingdom of Granada had sent to relieve the city, the European capital of Marinid Empire surrendered and was incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile.

Sources

Despite the remarkable significance of the siege and fall of Algeciras, there are few contemporary written sources that recount the events of the siege. The main work used in medieval historiography is the Chronicle of Alfonso XI, which tells the main events of the reign of this monarch, and whose part concerning the siege of Algeciras was written in the Christian camp by the royal scribes. This book recounts in detail the events as seen from outside the city, devoting a chapter to each month. Other Castilian works are the Poema de Alfonso Onceno, called the "rhyming chronicle", written by Rodrigo Yáñez and the Letters of Mateo Merced, Vice Admiral of Aragon, which include a report to his king on the entry of the troops in the city.[1][2]

All of these sources tell of the siege of the city from the perspective of the besiegers. The view from inside the city of the siege has not survived to modern times due to a total absence of Muslim sources, perhaps because of the absence of good writers in the city or perhaps due to a desire not to dwell on the loss of such an important city. Some of the few Arabic texts that refer indirectly the loss of the city have been translated in order to cover this aspect of the history of the siege.[3]

Background

Forces from Grenada and Morocco recovered the city of Gibraltar in the early part of the fourteenth century. In 1329 Algeciras was finally conquered by the King of Fez, who made it the capital of his European domains. In 1338 Abd-Al-Malik, son of the king of Morocco and proclaimed king of Algeciras and Ronda, launched raids against the Castilian territories in the south of the Iberian peninsula. In one of these skirmishes he was killed by Spanish soldiers and was buried in the capital. His father Abu-l-Hassan crossed the strait in 1340, defeated a Spanish fleet and landed in the city. On the grave of his son he swore to defeat the Castillian king. He first went to the town of Tarifa, to which he laid siege.

The king of Castile, overwhelmed by the incursions of the new North African force and the possibility of losing the city of Tarifa, prepared an army with the held of King Afonso IV of Portugal.[4] The two armies, Spanish and Marinid, met near the Los Lances beach of Tarifa, where they fought the Battle of Salado. The defeat of the Muslims in this battle encouraged the Christian king and convinced him of the need to take the city of Algeciras, since this was the main port of entry of troops from Africa.[5]

Preparations for the siege

Strait of Gibraltar during the Siege of Algeciras
Tower of the Champions

Starting in 1341, Alfonso XI began to prepare the necessary troops to lay siege to the city. He ordered construction of several ships and secured the support of the Genoese fleet of Egidio Boccanegra and squadrons of Portugal and Aragon. On land, as well as the Castillian troops, he had numerous European crusaders and was supported by the kings of England and France. The campaign was financed by the introduction of tax sales tax throughout the kingdom, approved by the Court of Burgos.[6]

Alfonso XI met in El Puerto de Santa Maria with the Portuguese Admiral Carlos Pezano and heard from Don Pero de Montada, Admiral of the Aragon squadron, that it was heading for Algeciras. He then left for Getares Cove, just 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the city, to check the status of the galleys at his disposal.[7][8] On his arrival at Getares, Pero de Montada informed the king that he had intercepted several ships carrying food to the city, and that the galleys of Portugal and Genoa had engaged eighty Moorish galleys in combat, captured twenty-six of them and forced the others to take refuge in African ports.[9] According to the Castillian leaders, this was the appropriate time to encircle the city, since it should have limited supplies. The king, however believes that he still had too few troops, since most of them were in Jerez de la Frontera waiting for his orders, while the Algeciras troops were already warned of their arrival.[10]

On the return of the king of Castile to Jerez, he assembled his council and informed them of the status of the city, while sending orders to the admirals established at Getares to intercept any boats trying to supply the city and to try to capture some Algecireño who could inform them about the state of the towns. He also sent orders to his almogávares to do the same on land. The champions of the king advised him on the most appropriate places to establish the main base where the King and nobles would live, and the vulnerable points where they could do most damage to the city's defenses.[11] It was only needed to move troops to Algeciras and with them build bridges over the Rio Barbate and over a stream near Jerez, and to send several ships to the River Guadalete to carry food for the troops.

On 25 July 1342 Alfonso XI left Jerez accompanied by his troops and the knights who were to assist him in the siege of Algeciras: the Archbishop of Toledo, Bishop of Cádiz, the Master of Santiago, Don Juan Alonso Pérez de Guzmán, Don Pero Ponce de León, Don Joan Núñez, Master of Calatrava, Nuño Chamizo, Master of Alcántara , Fray Alfonso Ortiz Calderón, Prior of San Juan and the councils of Seville, Cordoba, Jerez, Jaén, Ecija, Carmona and Niebla.[12]

The Spanish troops and their allies arrived on 1 August at Getares, including 1,600 mounted soldiers and 4,000 archers and lancers. From here the troops and squadrons of Aragon, Genoa and Castile took their positions. On 3 August the headquarters were established on a knoll north of Algeciras. The king lived in the tower there in the early months of the siege and directed the knights and nobles who accompanied him.[13] The Tower of the Champions, named for that time, gave an excellent view of the Muslim city and of the roads that communicate with Gibraltar and eastern Andalusia.[14]

The city of Algeciras

Location of the Algeciras towns

Al-Jazeera Al-Khadra was the first city founded by Muslims when they arrived in the Iberian peninsula in 711. In the fourteenth century the city had two separate towns with their own walls and defenses. Between the two towns was the Miel River. Its mouth formed a wide inlet which acted as a natural harbor protected by the Isla Verde Green Island, which the Muslims called Yazirat Umm Al-Hakim.

The north town, Al-Madina, called Villa Vieja by the Spaniards, was the oldest of the two and was founded in 711. It was surrounded by a wall with towers and a deep moat protected by a barbican and a parapet. The entrance to the villa from Gibraltar was protected by a monumental gateway called the Fonsario, near the main city cemetery.[15] This entrance was the weakest point of the defensive works and therefore the best protected. The south town, Al-Binya, built by the Merinids of Abu Yusuf Yaqub in 1285, was on a plateau that had once held the industrial neighborhood of Iulia Traducta, the Roman Algeciras.[16] The steepness of its perimeter helped its defense so it was unnecessary to build such strong defenses as those of the other villa. The south town, or Villa Nueva, housed the fortress and troops who had been established in the city.

At the time of the siege, Algeciras had about eight hundred horsemen and twelve thousand crossbowmen and archers, for a total of thirty thousand people, according to information from captives given to the King of Castile in the early days of the siege.[17]

Start of the siege

Major structure and places named in the text

From 3 August, after the main camp had been established, the king of Castile commanded the Royal Engineers to check those places where troops were positioned. The main aim was to prevent the departure of troops from the city and the entry of reinforcements from the Tarifa and Gibraltar roads. Algeciras would fall from hunger rather than by force of arms.

Seeing from the city that the siege had not yet been properly organized, the defenders decided to send three hundred men on horseback and a thousand on foot against the Master of Santiago, Joan Alfonso de Guzmán, Pero Ponce and the Seville Council in the Puerta del Fonsario. The men of the Count of Lous counterattacked. The Count did not wait for the other Christians, but died under a cloud of arrows when he came too close to the wall.[18]

After the king had seen the damage that could be done, in the next few days he had a trench dug around the Villa Norte to prevent attacks from the city. Scaffolds were built next to the trenches and at regular intervals soldiers were posted to stand guard at night.[19] The king also moved his headquarters closer to the city and sent several of his men conquer the Cartagena Tower in the city of Carteia, from where they could observe the movements of the Merinids of Gibraltar.

With the imminent war of King Pedro of Aragon against the Kingdom of Mallorca, the Aragonese fleet had to abandon the siege in early September. Because of the attackers they had to make fresh efforts to cause the abandonment of the city, since the departure of the Aragonese fleet made the maritime blockade more difficult and the city could be provisioned from Gibraltar. Siege engines were sent to a position near the northwest gate of the city where two great towers prevented attack and protected the defenders. During construction of these machines, several of the defenders attacked from the Puerta de Xerez to prevent placement. The Algecireños' strategy was to provoke the besiegers and make them come closer to the walls. This technique, which had allowed them to kill the Count of Lous, was not known to the Christian knights less accustomed to the border war, and therefore many men died during the struggle in the early months of the siege. In the raid on the siege towers the king's Esquire Joan Niño dies, as did the Master of Santiago and other men.[20]

Access bridge to the Fonsario gate

The siege dragged on, and the king of Castile sent several of his men to seek help in order to maintain the siege. The Archbishop of Toledo was sent to meet with the King of France while the Prior of St. Joan did the same with the Pope Clement VI, who had just been appointed.[21]

The besiegers were having more problems than they expected at the start of the siege. During the first days of October there was a huge storm in Algeciras. The camp located in the northwest was in a traditionally flooded area, and turned into a swamp. The defenders took advantage of the confusion created by the storm to attack during the night, causing extensive damage. Floods in the camp and in the encircling lines required the headquarters to be moved with the larger part of the troops to the mouth of the river Palmones where they spend the whole month until November. Soon after the main Christian camp had moved the Algecireños gathered all their forces in the Old Villa to make a desperate attack against their besiegers. The Muslim knights were able to reach the newly established Christian camp and kill many Christian knights including Gutier Díaz de Sandoval and Lope Fernández de Villagrand, vassals of Joan Núñez and Ruy Sánchez de Rojas, vassal of the Master of Santiago.

Location of King Alfonso XI during the siege, and of his troops

Gradually the situation became desperate in both the city and the camp. Food was scarce in the Christian camp food after the flooding, while the crowd of troops and animals in unsanitary conditions caused all kinds of infectious diseases.[22] Algeciras was short of food because the sea blockade was restored once the Aragonese squadron was back under the command of Mateo Mercader. During these first months of siege the Spaniards had not stopped launching rocks at the walls of the city while trying to cause harm the defenders with weapons such as ballistae, capable of firing large arrows.[19] In December the councils of Castilla and Extremadura reached the Christian side, and with them the land siege became tighter. They began to place a large number of ballistic engines around the city which the Genoese had brought. The defenders in the city continued to fire arrows at those installing the machines.[23]

Cannon balls in the archaeological park of the marine walls during the 1342 siege

During January 1343 the continuing struggles in the lines round the city weakened the forces of both sides. A large fortified wooden tower had been built facing the Puerta del Fonsario, commanded by Iñigo López de Orozco, from which missile could be fired against city over the wall.[24] This first tower was burned soon after being built by a force that sallied from the city, but another was built and continued firing against the city throughout the siege.[19]

The king of Granada, Yusuf I, was preparing relief supplies for the city. With the threat of troops from Grenada, the attacks escalated against the Puerta del Fonsario in the Old Villa, the weakest point but also the best fortified. In front of it Alfonso XI ordered construction of new covered trenches, which allowed approach to the city walls to place siege engines. From Algeciras, meanwhile, the defenders threw iron missiles from pyro-ballistic weapons, which caused extensive damage. These were the first pieces of artillery with gunpowder used in the peninsula.[19]

The towers and trenches continued to be built around the city until they surrounded the entire perimeter. The Castilian camp fired ballistic weapons called blunderbusses, which discharged large quantities of stone balls on the city, many of which were recovered from the pits by the assailants to be reused.[19] Such was the number of the cannon balls launched that in 1487 King Ferdinand of Aragon sent an expedition to the ruins of Algeciras to retrieve them for use them again against the city of Malaga, which was being besieged.[25] These arms had a maximum range of 300 metres (980 ft).[26]

By this time reinforcements arrived at the Christian camp from the various councils of Castile, including the knights Juan Núñez III de Lara and Don Juan Manuel, and these fresh troops replaced many of the soldiers who had been injured or were weakened by hunger.[24]

From February the besiegers began to build a wall around the sea approaches to the city to prevent the arrival of food from Gibraltar. The idea of the council of Castile was to encircle the entire coast of Algeciras with ropes supported by logs.[19] This maritime line went from the Rodeo point to the south of the city, to the Isla Verde and from there to the Playa de Los Ladrillos to the north.[27] It would be closely supported by the Christian squadrons.

Granada and Morocco come to the aid of Algeciras

Torre del Almirante, residence during the Siege of Algeciras of Egidio Boccanegra and the Castilian and Genoese fleets

In May of 1343 a large army under the Muslim king of Granada passed the Guadiaro river and approached the city. Quickly the Christian king sent for his knights to see how they could deal with this new threat. Alfonso XI sent letters informing Granada he would lift the siege of the city if it paid him tribute. The king of Granada made ​​a truce offer, but it was not enough for the Spaniards.[28]

The same month of May saw the arrival at Algeciras of numerous European knights drawn by the importance of the event that was taking place: from Germany Count Bous, from England Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Lancaster and the Earls of Salisbury and Arby, from France Gastón II el Paladino, Count of Foix and his brother, and from the Kingdom of Navarre the king Don Felipe with supplies and troops.[29]

Meanwhile, the Granada troops did not move from their positions but waited for the right moment to approach the city. During the months of June and July the situation in the siege was the same. Fortified towers and trenches were built and fighting continued around the city. The city defenders used ballistae, engines that were probably similar to catapults and especially the "thunder" as the new gunpowder was called by the Muslims, causing major damage to the siege forces targeting mainly the siege towers and trenches.[19][30]

In August 1343, while negotiations were continuing between Castile and Granada, news arrived that in Morocco King Abu al-Hasan 'Ali was preparing a fleet to go to the aid of the city. Faced with the imminent entry into the struggle of the Muslim forces from Granada and Morocco, it became urgent to the Christians to accelerate plans for conquest of Algeciras. All the troops established in Guadiaro and the ships prepared for a great battle.

Simultaneously, Alfonso de Castilla receives news that the Pope would give the kingdom 20,000 florins to defray the expenses of the campaign, and so would the king of France through the Archbishop of Toledo, Don Gil de Albornoz, with 50,000 florins. With this money the Spaniards could pay the Genoese mercenaries, who had long demanded their pay.[31] The difficulties of the Christians in the siege and the immediacy of battle with Granada and Morocco were known throughout the kingdom. The king of Castile had to pawn his crown and send several of his silver belongings to Sevilla after a fire reduced the camp's store of flour to ashes.[32]

At the same time, Aragon ordered new ships to help maintain the siege. The Vice Admiral of Valencia, Jaime Escribano, arrived in mid-August with ten Aragonese galleys.[33] These ten boats and another fifteen Castillian ships commanded by Admiral Egidio Boccanegra were sent to Ceuta to do as much damage as possible to the fleet of the King of Morocco, who was waiting at this port for the arrival of the fleet of Granada to go to the aid of Algeciras.[34] In the first enounter, the Christians tried to surprise the Muslim fleet by sending into combat only the fifteen Castilian ships, while the Aragonese ships maneuvered as if preparing to go to the aid of the Moroccans.

The strategy would have been expensive to Morocco had they had captured a Castillian sailor before the final encounter, who warned the Muslims of the ruse. The ships from Ceuta quickly returned to port and Christian fleet had to return to the Bay of Algeciras.[35] On arrival at the siege, Egidio Boccanegra posted twenty of his ships in the port of Getares waiting for new orders, ready to intercept the Maghreb if they decided to attack the encirclement.

Fez troops cross the strait

In October the Moroccan fleet crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and reached Getares. As soon as the first warning fires of the Christian beacons were seen, forty Castilian and Aragonese ships stationed themselves at the southern entrance of the city. But the boats from North Africa did not head to Algeciras but took shelter in the nearby port of Gibraltar.[36] A battle between the galleys threatened to break out. Warned of this, the Genoese squadron began to embark all that belonged to in order to leave. With all their equipment in their ships, the Admiral Egidio Boccanegra informed the king that if they were not paid four months of arrears for service they would leave the siege. It was already known that the Genoese sailors had been dealing with the Merinids of Gibraltar and Ceuta, and the relations between them were far from hostile. It was feared in the headquarters that, not having been paid, the soldiers of Genoa would help the Muslims in the coming battle, as had happened during the siege of Alfonso X.[37]

The king resolved to pay the soldiers of Genoa from his own resources, and the soldiers decided to continue the siege and remain loyal to the king. An important factor was the loans that Genoese merchants made to the king of Castile during the siege, which allowed him to quell the complaints of his soldiers.[38] The two squadrons did not meet in the bay, but the ships commanded by the Emir of Fez docked in the city of Gibraltar, where they left a large number of soldiers: forty thousand infantry and twelve thousand horsemen according to some chroniclers.[39]

In November the king of Granada and the Prince of Morocco came to the banks of the river Palmones. The movement of troops from Gibraltar to the banks of Palmones were protected by a squadron of ships of the Emir of Morocco, which stood in the middle of the bay to prevent the Castilian-Aragonese fleet from landing troops to oppose them. The Castilian command then ordered attempts to set fire to the enemy ships by means of vessels full of flammable material and burning arrows, taking advantage of the strong east wind that was blowing. The Muslims avoided the fire by placing wet sails on deck and using long poles to fend off the enemy ships.[39]

The Castillian command had been warned of the arrival of the troops by signals to the Tower of Champions. The Islamic army sent a first expeditionary force across the river to reconnoiter the Castillians, which was observed from the tower. Alfonso XI ordered that none of his men attack the Granadans until all their troops had crossed the river. The Muslims also knew the terrain and after an initial inspection and a minor brush with a small group of Christians, returned to their side of the river waiting for news.[40] At the Granada camp they were in no hurry to start fighting because in a few days they would receive reinforcements from their capital, and could then face the Castilians.

Battle of the River Palmones

Palmones River Marshes

On 12 December the raids against the walls of the city were especially strong. The city was throwing "thunder" at Christian camp, while in return it launched many arrows against the defenders. Shortly after dawn the siege weapons made a break in the defenses, and through it an attack was launched on the city, but the besiegers were not able to penetrate. At this point fear in Algeciras and the defenders made smoke signals from the tower of the main mosque of the city indicating that the situation was untenable. At the Granadan camp they saw the signals and heard the noise, and understood that the city was being attacked.[41] The troops from Gibraltar were quickly mobilized to join those who were in combat formation in Palmones.[42]

From the Tower of the champions, Alfonso XI directed his army to form, and Don Joan Núñez was positioned in one of the places where the river could be crossed near the mountains. Muslim troops that passed the ford had to battle the Spaniards, and were overwhelmed by the large numbers of troops that had come from the tower. On the command of the King, all the Christian troops crossed the river and undertook prosecution of Granada retiring to camp. The Muslim cavalry were soon reduced due to the damage they were receiving from the Christian ranks. Those of Granada and Fez had to flee, leaving the army and ignoring orders to withdraw to Gibraltar. Many Muslims fled to the mountains of Algeciras, others towards the Almoraima tower, pursued by the Spaniards.

The alliance of Granada and Moroccan troops had been defeated, but Palmones River marshes had many corpses from both sides. It was not a total defeat and there was a possibility that Muslims would reorganize their troops. The Christians needed the city to fall soon.

Capitulation

Ruins of Algeciras in an eighteenth century engraving.

After the disastrous battle of the river Palmones, the king of Granada wanted to prepare a second attack on the Christian hosts, but the morale of the troops was low. The emissary of the Emir of Granada convinced Fez to try to resolve the conflict with the king of Castile by a peace treaty. A letter was sent to the command at Algeciras offering a truce. But Alfonso XI did not want peace on any terms other than that the city became part of his kingdom.[41]

In January 1344 the Castilian king decided to strengthen the maritime siege, which was often violated by small boats from Gibraltar. The new defense would be strengthened by chaining together large floating barrels, maintaining their position with sunken millstones and ship masts that protruding several meters from the sea surface.[19] Installation of this maritime barrier took two months, during which there was a continuing violation of it by small boats. The passage of boats into the city of Algeciras was definitely cut off in early March. It was now only a matter of time before hunger forced the city to capitulate or offer a satisfactory agreement to the besiegers.[43]

In March, the situation in the city was desperate. There was no bread or any other food for its people and there only enough defenders to cover part of the wall. On Sunday 2 March Don Hazán Algarrafe, sent by the king of Granada, arrives with news for the King of Castile: the King of Granada accepted surrender the city of Algeciras. The conditions of Muslims were simple: all those who remained in the city should be allowed to leave with all their belongings under the protection of Alfonso XI; there would be a fifteen year truce between the kingdoms of Castile and the King of Granada and Morocco; and Grenada would pay a tribute of twelve thousand doubloons of gold annually to Castile. The king's military council recommended continuing the site as soon reinforcements would arrive from Seville and Toledo, and the trenches ​​around the city ensured that it would soon be starving. However, Alfonso XI did not want to continue fighting since the siege was too expensive and he had lost many soldiers. He accepted the conditions of the Muslims with the only change in the duration of the truce, which would be for only ten years.[44] The Treaty of Algeciras was then signed, ending twenty-one months of siege.[45]

On 26 March 1344 the inhabitants of Villa Nueva passed, with their belongings, to the Old Town, yielding the New Town to the prince Don Juan Manuel. The next day, the eve of Palm Sunday, the Old Town was handed over to King Alfonso XI empty of its occupants out of it. The towers of the city were decked with the banners of the king, the prince Don Pedro, Don Enrique, the Master of Santiago, Don Fernando, Don Tello and Don Juan. Accompanying the delegation were the king's main commanders, including Egidio Boccanegra, who was appointed Lord of the Estado de la Palma in appreciation for his work in the encirclement.[46] The next day a mass was held in the mosque of the city, consecrating it as the cathedral dedicated to Santa Maria de La Palma, the patron saint of the city ever since.[47] Great men of the Castilian nobility who died in the siege were Rui López de Rivera, who had been Castillian ambassador in Morocco, Diego López de Zúñiga y Haro, Lord of the great estate of La Rioja , Gonzalo Yáñez de Aguilar and Fernán González de Aguilar, lords of Aguilar, among others.[48]

Aftermath

The fall of Algeciras was a decisive step in the Reconquista, giving the Kingdom of Castile its main port on the north coast of the Strait of Gibraltar. The city would thereafter by the primary basis of action of the Christian armies. To ensure the prosperity of the new Castilian city, in 1345 King Alfonso XI issued a charter that provided farmland and tax benefits to as many people as wanted to settle in the city.[49] He added to the titles of the kings of Spain that of King of Algeciras, and asked Pope Clement VI to moved the Cathedral of Cádiz to Algeciras, creating the diocese of Cadiz and Algeciras and converting the main mosque of the city into a cathedral dedicated to the Virgen de la Palma.[50][51]

After the loss of Al-Jazeera Al-Khadra, the only remaining port of the kingdom of Fez was the town Gibraltar. All the efforts of the reconquest would now focus on taking this port. In 1350 Alfonso XI imposed a strong siege on the city, again relying on the fleets of Aragon and Genoa who established their main base in Algeciras. But this time the fate of the city did not depend on military actions. On 26 March of that year the king died during an epidemic of bubonic plague in the Castilian camp.[52]

The unexpected death resulted in a civil war among claimants to the throne of Castile. The consequences of the war on Algeciras were swift and in 1369 during the war between Pedro I and his brother Henry II the garrison was weakened due to the need for troops in the north. The king of Granada Muhammad V took the opportunity to recapture Al-Jazeera Al-Khadra.[53] The Muslims rebuild the defenses and established a large force to defend the city.

The fate of the city changed again with the end of the disputes in Castile. In 1379, when the Christian armies regrouped, Grenadians foresaw their inability to defend the city in case of another siege, and the danger if it again fell into Castilian hands. That year they undertook the destruction of the city.[54] They threw down the harbor walls and burned down all buildings. In three days Algeciras was completely destroyed, and would remain so until the British conquest of Gibraltar in 1704, when some of the exiles from Gibraltar settled the barren fields that occupied the old city of Villa Vieja.[55]

Notes and references

Citations

  1. ^ Tarifa y el Poema de Alfonso XI.
  2. ^ Pérez Rosado 2013.
  3. ^ Jiménez-Camino Álvarez & Tomassetti Guerra 2005, p. 5.
  4. ^ Montero 1860, p. 144.
  5. ^ Torremocha Silva & Sáez Rodríguez 2001, p. 199.
  6. ^ Santacana y Mensayas 1901, p. 50.
  7. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 487.
  8. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 489.
  9. ^ Montero 1860, p. 149.
  10. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 490.
  11. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 492.
  12. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 493.
  13. ^ Jiménez-Camino Álvarez & Tomassetti Guerra 2005, p. 12.
  14. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 494.
  15. ^ Jiménez-Camino Álvarez & Tomassetti Guerra 2005, p. 11.
  16. ^ Jiménez-Camino Álvarez & Tomassetti Guerra 2005.
  17. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 496.
  18. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 497.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h Torremocha Silva 2004.
  20. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 502.
  21. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 504.
  22. ^ Rojas Gabriel 1972, p. 887.
  23. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 515.
  24. ^ a b Montero 1860, p. 152.
  25. ^ Del Pulgar 1780, p. 304.
  26. ^ Rojas Gabriel 1972, p. 883.
  27. ^ Torremocha Silva & Sáez Rodríguez 2001, p. 203.
  28. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 542.
  29. ^ Montero 1860, p. 153.
  30. ^ Torremocha Silva 1987, p. 248.
  31. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 561.
  32. ^ Montero 1860, p. 154.
  33. ^ Torremocha Silva 2000, p. 440.
  34. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 567.
  35. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 568.
  36. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 589.
  37. ^ Calderón Ortega 2001, p. 331.
  38. ^ Torremocha Silva 2000, p. 442.
  39. ^ a b Montero 1860, p. 156.
  40. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 601.
  41. ^ a b Lafuente Alcántara 1852, p. 391.
  42. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 609.
  43. ^ Torremocha Silva 1987, p. 252.
  44. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 621.
  45. ^ Torremocha Silva & Sáez Rodríguez 2001, p. 204.
  46. ^ Ortiz de Zúñiga 1795, p. 304.
  47. ^ Crónica de Alfonso Onceno, p. 623.
  48. ^ Ortiz de Zúñiga 1795, p. 112.
  49. ^ Torremocha Silva & Sáez Rodríguez 2001, p. 278.
  50. ^ Torremocha Silva & Sáez Rodríguez 2001, p. 310.
  51. ^ Igartuburu 1847, p. 121.
  52. ^ Sayer 1862, p. 47.
  53. ^ García Torres 1851, p. 376.
  54. ^ Olmedo 2006, p. 20.
  55. ^ Madoz 1849, p. 567.

Sources

Further reading

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