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Minefields in Croatia

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   Approximate locations of suspected minefields in Croatia

Minefields in Croatia cover 683.4 square kilometres (263.9 square miles) of territory as of 20 February 2013. The minefields, usually referred to as "mine suspected areas" are located in 12 counties and 96 cities and municipalities. These areas are thought to contain approximately 90,000 land mines as well as unexploded ordnance left over since the Croatian War of Independence. Land mines were used extensively during the war by all sides in the conflict, and about 1.5 million were deployed. They were laid to strengthen defensive positions that lacked sufficient weapons or manpower. Despite this, the minefields played a very limited role in the fighting.

After the war, 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 square miles) of territory was initially suspected of containing mines, but this estimate was later reduced to 1,174 square kilometres (453 square miles) following physical inspections. As of 2013 demining programmes were being coordinated through governmental bodies such as the Croatian Mine Action Centre, which was hiring privately owned demining companies employing 632 deminers. As of February 2013, 683.4 square kilometres (263.9 square miles) of the suspected minefields remained to be cleared. Croatia is aiming to clear all suspected minefields by 2019. The suspected minefields are marked using more than 15,000 warning signs.

As of 4 April 2013, 509 people had been killed and 1,466 had been injured by land mines in Croatia since the war. Those figures include 60 deminers and seven Croatian Army engineers killed during demining operations. In the immediate aftermath of the war there were about 100 civilian mine casualties per year, but this gradually decreased to below ten per year through demining, mine awareness and education programmes. Croatia has spent approximately 450 million Euro on demining since 1998 when the process was taken over by private contractors coordinated by the Croatian Mine Action Centre. It is estimated that another 500 million Euro or more will be needed to complete the demining. The economic loss to Croatia due to loss of use of the land contained within suspected minefields is estimated at 47.3 million Euro per year.

Background

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JNA/RSK held areas in Croatia in January 1992
Main article: Croatian War of Independence

In 1990, following the electoral defeat of the Communist regime, ethnic tensions worsened in Croatia. After the elections, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) confiscated Croatia's Territorial Defence weapons to minimize potential resistance.[1] On 17 August, tensions escalated to an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs. The JNA stepped in and prevented Croatian police from intervening.[2] The revolt centered on the predominantly Serb-populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin,[3] parts of the Lika, Kordun and Banovina regions and in eastern Croatian settlements with a significant Serb population,[4] This contiguous area was subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK). The RSK declared its intention to join with Serbia, and was viewed by the Government of Croatia as a secessionist region.[5] By March 1991, the conflict had escalated into what became known as the Croatian War of Independence.[6] In June, Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated.[7] By January 1992, the conflict had produced 17,028-square-kilometre (6,575 sq mi) of RSK-held territory within the borders claimed by Croatia. The RSK territory ranged from 63.1 to 2.5 kilometres (39.2 to 1.6 miles) in depth, and which had a 923-kilometre (574 mi) front line with Croatian controlled territory.[8]

Wartime use

Land mines were first used in Croatia by the JNA in early 1991 to protect military barracks and other facilities prior to its withdrawal from Croatia. Even JNA facilities located in urban centres were secured in this way, using mines such as the PROM-1 bounding mine and MRUD directional anti-personnel mine.[9] The Croatian Army (HV) and Croatian police began laying land mines in late 1991, relying heavily on them until early 1992 in order to stop advances by the JNA and the Army of the RSK (ARSK). These early minefields were put in place with very little proper documentation. In 1992, the ARSK increased their use of mines to secure the frontline,[10] largely due to their limited troop numbers. Consequently, the ARSK constructed static defensive lines comprising trenches, bunkers and large numbers of mines designed to protect thinly manned defences, in order to delay any HV offensives. This approach was necessary due to the limited depth of RSK territory, and the virtually complete lack of reserves available to counterattack or block any breaches of their defensive line, resulting in the ARSK being unable to defend in depth.[11] The combination of poor documentation of the locations of minefields and the lack of markings or fencing led to frequent injuries to military personnel caused by mines laid by friendly forces.[12] It is estimated that a total of 1.5 million land mines were laid during the war.[9]

The HV successfully used anti-tank mines as obstacles in combination with infantry anti-tank weapons, destroying or disabling more than 300 JNA tanks, particularly during defensive operations in Slavonia.[9] Conversely, anti-personnel mines deployed by the ARSK proved less effective against the HV during Operations Flash and Storm in 1995. During these operations, the HV crossed or bypassed many ARSK minefields based on information gained through land-based and unmanned aerial vehicle reconnaissance of the movement of ARSK patrols, civilian populations and activation of mines by wild animals.[13] Out of the 224 HV personnel killed in the Operations Flash and Storm, only 15 fatalities were caused by land mines. Similarly, out of 966 wounded in the two offensives, only 92 were injured by land mines.[14]

Casualties

As of 4 April 2013 a total of 509 people had been killed and 1,466 more had been injured by land mines in 1,352 separate incidents in Croatia.[15] There were 557 civilian casualties of land mines between 1991 and 1995, during the war and in its immediate aftermath. Between 1996 and 1998, there were approximately 100 civilian casualties from land mines per year in Croatia,[16] but the number had gradually reduced to below ten per year by 2010.[17] During the war, HV casualties from land mines were comparably light as 57 troops were killed or injured by mines in 1992,[18] while 169 were killed or injured in 1995—most of them during the Operations Flash and Storm,[14] given the latter offensive involved approximately 130,000 HV troops.[19] Seven HV engineers were killed and 18 injured by land mines during HV mine clearance operations between 1996 and 1998.[16] Civilian casualties include 60 deminers that have been killed since 1998.[20]

Croatia has established an extensive framework to provide assistance to those injured by mines and the families of mine victims. This assistance includes emergency and ongoing medical care, physical rehabilitation, psychological and social support, employment and social integration assistance, public awareness, and access to public services. The institutions and organizations supporting mine victims include a wide range of governmental bodies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).[21]

Existing minefields

A standard minefield sign
Further information: List of minefields in Croatia

As of 20 February 2013, there are 683.4 square kilometres (263.9 square miles) of Croatian territory suspected of containing land mines. These areas are located in 12 counties and 96 cities and municipalities. They are thought to contain approximately 90,000 land mines as well as unexploded ordnance left over since the Croatian War of Independence. Areas suspected of containing land mines are marked using more than 15,000 warning signs.[22] Areas thought to contain unexploded ordnance, but no land mines, are marked using 409 different warning signs.[17] The suspected minefields are largely situated in forests (62%), while the rest are in agricultural land (26%) as well as karst terrain and shrubland (12%).[23]

Social and economic impact

Land mines are a safety issue for the population living in the vicinity of the minefields. In 2008, it was estimated that 921,253 people were endangered by their proximity mined areas. This represents 20.8% of the population of Croatia. Land mines also present a significant problem for development, specifically because a substantial portion of the minefields in Croatia are located in agricultural land and forests. As a direct consequence of minefields on agricultural land, some drainage channels are inaccessible for maintenance, in turn causing intermittent flooding of fields. The problem is particularly severe in areas along national borders with Hungary. Similar problems are caused by mines laid on the banks of the Drava, Kupa and Sava rivers.[24] The presence of land mines adversely affected postwar recovery in rural areas as the mines restrict available agricultural land and impeded development, affecting the quality of life of people living in those areas.[25] Besides agriculture, the most significant economic problems caused by mines in Croatia are observed in tourism, especially hunting tourism in inland areas away from the Adriatic Sea coast, and forestry. In 2012, it was estimated that the economy of Croatia suffers a loss of 355 million Kuna (c. 47.3 million Euro) per year from the effects of the "mine suspected areas" on the economy.[26]

Since tourism is significant to the economy, demining of areas frequented by tourists and areas adjacent to major tourist routes was given priority.[24] Other safety-related areas given the top demining priority are settlements, commercial and industrial facilities and all documented minefields. Agricultural land, infrastructure and forests are grouped in three priority categories depending on their economic significance. National parks in Croatia were also demined as the top priority areas, along with areas significant for fire protection.[27] A particular problem is theft of the minefield signage, which is particularly marked in areas where the local population is concerned that the signs alone will harm tourism. The signs are regularly replaced though, sometimes using concrete or masonry structures to display them instead of simple metal poles.[28] Since the 1990s, only one tourist has been injured by a land mine in Croatia.[29]

The Government of Croatia established several bodies to address the problem of land mines in Croatia. The foremost among them are the Office for Mine Action and the Croatian Mine Action Centre. The Office for Mine Action is a government agency, tasked with providing expert analysis and advice for demining. The Croatian Mine Action Centre is also a public sector body, tasked with planning and conducting demining surveys, accepting cleared areas, marking of "mine suspected areas", quality assurance, demining research and development, and mine victim assistance. The work of the Croatian Mine Action Centre is supervised by the Office for Mine Action.[30][31]

Mine awareness and education

Mine awareness billboard poster

Croatia implemented a mine awareness and education programme aimed at reducing the frequency of mine related accidents through a sustained information campaign. The programme is carried out by the Croatian Red Cross, the Ministry of Science, Education and Sports and a number of NGOs in cooperation with the Croatian Mine Action Centre. The Croatian Mine Action Centre actively supports NGOs to develop as many programmes as possible and to attract new NGOs to mine awareness and education activities.[32] It also maintains an online accessible database providing cartographic information on the location of "mine suspected areas" in Croatia.[33]

One mine awareness campaign, which involved advertising using billboard posters drew criticism from the Ministry of Tourism and the Croatian National Tourist Board (CNTB) because the posters were placed in tourist areas, far from any "mine suspected areas". The Ministry of Tourism and the CNTB welcomed the humanitarian aspect of the effort, but considered that the posters appeared threatening, and were a potential source of unwarranted and disproportionate negative reaction from tourists.[34] Tourist guidebooks of Croatia include warnings of the danger from mines still found in the coutry, and provide general information regarding their whereabouts.[35]

Demining

A mine flail used for demining in Croatia

At the end of the Croatian War of Independence, approximately 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 square miles) of the country was initially suspected of containing mines.[36] During the war and in its immediate aftermath, demining was performed by the HV engineers,[16] supported by police and civil defence personnel. Wartime demining was focused on clearance tasks in support of military operations and the immediate safety of the civilian population. In 1996, the Parliament of Croatia enacted the Demining Act, tasking the police with organization and the government-owned AKD Mungos company with performance of demining itself.[37] By April 1998, approximately 40 square kilometres (15 square miles) had been cleared of mines, and the initial estimate of minefield areas was reduced through inspections. By 2003, the entire territory of Croatia had been reviewed in that respect and the minefield area size was revised down to 1,174 square kilometres (453 square miles).[38]

Since May 1998,[23] the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been tasked with the development of demining plans, projects, technical inspections, cleared area handover, demining quality assurance, expert assistance and coordination of mine-clearance activities.[31] Demining itself is performed by 35 licensed companies employing 632 demining professionals and 58 auxiliary personnel. The licensed companies perform their work using 681 metal detectors, 55 mine rollers and mine flails, and 15 mine detection dogs.[39] The mine-clearing machines include locally-designed models produced by DOK-ING.[40] Deminers typically earn 0.50–1.20 Euro for each 1 square metre (11 square feet) cleared, or 800–900 Euro per month.[41]

Since 1998, demining has been funded through the government budget and donations. From 1998 to 2011, donations amounted to 75.5 million Euro, contributing 17% towards a total sum of 450 million Euro spent on demining in that period. Most of the donations were made by foreign contributors, including NGOs and foreign governments, including Japan, Germany, Monaco, Luxembourg and the United States. The European Union was also a significant contributor during that period, providing 20.7 million Euro for the purpose.[42] As of 2013, the Croatian Mine Action Centre has been allocated approximately 400 million Kuna (c. 53 million Euro) per year for demining.[40] It is estimated that a further 500 million Euro or more will be needed to remove all remaining land mines from Croatia by 2019,[43] the deadline for completion of land mine clearance in the country according to the Ottawa Treaty.[44] The Croatian Mine Action Centre spends approximately 500,000 Kuna (c. 66,600 Euro) per year to maintain minefield warning signs, including replacement of stolen signage.[36]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Hoare 2010, p. 117
  2. ^ Hoare 2010, p. 118
  3. ^ The New York Times & 19 August 1990
  4. ^ ICTY & 12 June 2007
  5. ^ The New York Times & 2 April 1991
  6. ^ The New York Times & 3 March 1991
  7. ^ The New York Times & 26 June 1991
  8. ^ Marijan 2007, p. 36
  9. ^ a b c Halužan 1999, p. 142
  10. ^ Halužan 1999, p. 143
  11. ^ Balkan Battlegrounds 2002, p. 272
  12. ^ Halužan 1999, p. 144
  13. ^ Halužan 1999, p. 147
  14. ^ a b Halužan 1999, p. 148
  15. ^ tportal.hr & 4 April 2013
  16. ^ a b c Halužan 1999, p. 149
  17. ^ a b HCR 2010, p. 8
  18. ^ Halužan 1999, p. 145
  19. ^ Index.hr & 5 August 2011
  20. ^ Slobodna Dalmacija & 24 July 2012
  21. ^ HCR & Assistance
  22. ^ OMA & February 2013
  23. ^ a b HCR & Introduction
  24. ^ a b HCR & Programme, p. 6
  25. ^ MVEP 2008, p. 8
  26. ^ tportal.hr & 21 November 2012
  27. ^ HCR & Programme, p. 7
  28. ^ ezadar.hr & 28 August 2011
  29. ^ Index.hr & 21 July 2005
  30. ^ Vlada RH & 22 May 2012
  31. ^ a b HCR & Activities
  32. ^ HCR & Programme, p. 4
  33. ^ HCR & Awareness
  34. ^ MT & 23 February 2006
  35. ^ Bousfield 2003, p. 47
  36. ^ a b Večernji list & 7 March 2012
  37. ^ HCR & Programme, p. 1
  38. ^ HCR & Programme, p. 2
  39. ^ HCR & Licensees
  40. ^ a b Index.hr & 4 April 2013
  41. ^ DW & 4 April 2013
  42. ^ HCR & Donations
  43. ^ tportal.hr & 7 September 2011
  44. ^ Nacional & 14 January 2011

References

Books
  • Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995. Darby, Pennsylvania: Diane Publishing Company. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7567-2930-1.
  • Bousfield, Jonathan (2003). The Rough Guide to Croatia. Rough Guides. ISBN 9781843530848. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Hoare, Marko Attila (2010). "The War of Yugoslav Succession". In Ramet, Sabrina P. (ed.). Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487504. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Marijan, Davor (2007). Oluja (PDF) (in Croatian). Croatian memorial-documentation center of the Homeland War of the Government of Croatia. ISBN 978-953-7439-08-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
News reports
Other sources

External links

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