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Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Epf (talk | contribs) at 21:03, 4 December 2013 (admixture between homo sapiens and archaic humans is still a THEORY; this biased article has been written as OR and as if it is proven, and provides ZERO references to the considerable number of studies which dispute the admixture theory). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Chris Stringer's hypothesis of the family tree of genus Homo, published 2012 in Nature:[1] Homo floresiensis originated in an unknown location from unknown ancestors and reached remote parts of Indonesia. Homo erectus spread from Africa to western Asia, then east Asia and Indonesia; its presence in Europe is uncertain, but it gave rise to Homo antecessor, found in Spain. Homo heidelbergensis originated from Homo erectus in an unknown location and dispersed across Africa, southern Asia and southern Europe (other scientists interpret fossils, here named heidelbergensis, as late erectus). Homo sapiens spread from Africa to western Asia and then to Europe and southern Asia, eventually reaching Australia and the Americas. In addition to Neanderthals and Denisovans a third gene flow in Africa is indicated at the right.[2]

Archaic human admixture with modern Homo sapiens has been asserted to have occurred at least twice in history: with Neanderthals, and with the population to which the Denisova hominin belonged. A minimum estimated 1% to 4% of the DNA in Eurasians is non-modern and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA rather than with sub-Saharan Africans (i.e. Yoruba and San probands).[3][4] A minimum additional estimated 4–6% of Melanesian DNA is from the archaic Denisovan hominins from Asia.[5] Recent DNA analysis also indicates African admixture with a now extinct archaic population.[6]

Other studies carried out since the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome have cast doubt on the level of admixture between Neanderthals and modern humans, or even as to whether the species interbred at all. One study has asserted that the presence of Neanderthal or other archaic human genetic markers can be attributed to shared ancestral traits between the species originating from a 500,000-year-old common ancestor.[7][8][9]

Neanderthals

Various theories of Neanderthal admixture in modern human DNA, i.e. the result of interbreeding of Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans during the Middle Paleolithic have been debated throughout the 20th century, and in terms of genetics throughout the 2000s.[10][11] In March 2013, new data from the Mezzena mandible (Monti Lessini, Italy) indicated possible interbreeding (sapiens/neanderthal hybrid) in late Italian Neanderthals.[12]

In May 2010, the Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding did likely take place and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations. The interbreeding hypothesis is a controversially discussed scenario of Neanderthal extinction, the disappearance of Neanderthal traits from the fossil record about 30,000 years ago. Nonetheless, and according to recent genetic studies on genomic DNA, modern humans seem to have mated with "at least two groups" of ancient humans: Neanderthals and Denisovans.[13] However, modern humans do not share any mitochondrial DNA with the Neanderthals,[14] an observation that puts constraints on the possible types of successful mating patterns,[15] since mitochondrial DNA in primates is exclusively maternally transmitted.

History

The hypothesis, variously under the names of interbreeding, hybridization, admixture or hybrid-origin theory, has been discussed ever since the discovery of Neanderthal remains in the 19th century, though earlier writers believed that Neanderthals were a direct ancestor of modern humans. Thomas Huxley suggested that many Europeans bore traces of Neanderthal ancestry, but associated Neanderthal characteristics with primitivism, writing that since they "belong to a stage in the development of the human species, antecedent to the differentiation of any of the existing races, we may expect to find them in the lowest of these races, all over the world, and in the early stages of all races".[16]

[[::dk::Hans Peder Steensby|Hans Peder Steensby]] in the article Race studies in Denmark (1907) rejected that Neanderthals were ape-like or inferior, and, while emphasizing that all modern humans are of mixed origins, suggested interbreeding as the best available explanation of a significant number of observations which by then were available.[17]

In the early twentieth century, Carleton Coon argued that the Caucasoid race is of dual origin consisting of Upper Paleolithic (mixture of H. sapiens and neanderthalensis) types and Mediterranean (purely H. sapiens) types. He repeated his theory in his 1962 book The Origin of Races.[18]

Stan Gooch in Personality and Evolution (1973) and The Neanderthal Question (1977) develops a theory of Neanderthal/Cro-Magnon hybridization, based not on an examination of anatomy but of his understanding of modern human psychology and society, which he claimed owes a significant debt to Neanderthal culture. Gooch's theories were dismissed by academia. Gooch refined his theory in Cities of Dreams (1989) and The Neanderthal Legacy (2008).

The focus of the debate shifted from the study of anatomy to archaeogenetics in the 2000s and to the study of ancient DNA with the Neanderthal Genome Project, beginning in 2006.

The question of Neanderthal/Cro-Magnon hybridization is reflected in 20th century popular culture, in works such as La Guerre du feu (1911), Dance of the Tiger (1978, 1980) by Finnish palaeontologist Björn Kurtén, and the Earth's Children series by Jean M. Auel, published from 1980.

Genetics

Further information: Neanderthal Genome Project and admixture mapping

A draft sequence publication by the Neanderthal Genome Project in May 2010 indicates that Neanderthals share more genetic lineages with Eurasian populations than with sub-Saharan Africans. According to the study, this scenario is best explained by gene flow from Neanderthals to modern humans after humans emerged from Africa and before the divergence of the Eurasian groups. An estimated 1–4% of the DNA in Europeans and Asians (e.g. French, Chinese and Papua probands) is non-modern and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA rather than with Sub-Saharan Africans (e.g. Yoruba and San probands). Though less parsimonious than gene flow, ancient sub-structure in Africa, could account for the higher levels of Neanderthal lineages detected in Eurasians.[19] Some researchers suggest admixture of 3.4%-7.9% in Eurasian populations, rejecting the hypothesis of ancestral population structure.[20]

No evidence supporting this has been found in mitochondrial DNA analyses of modern Europeans, suggesting at least that no direct maternal line originating with Neanderthals has survived into modern times.[21][22][23]

Recent studies have shown a higher Neanderthal admixture in East Asians when compared to Europeans.[24][25] It indicated that most-likely at least two independent events of gene flow must have taken place into modern humans[24][25] and that the ancestors of modern East Asians experienced more admixture than those of modern Europeans after the divergence of the two groups.[25] It is also possible, but less likely, that the difference was caused by dilution in Europeans by later migrations out of Africa.[24]

A 2012 study found that modern North Africans have a Neandertal admixture lying between that of modern Eurasians and modern sub-Saharan Africans. It has also shown a great variation within modern North Africans itself, depending primarily on the amount of European and near East ancestry versus sub-Saharan African ancestry.[26]

Variation in microcephalin, a critical regulator of brain size whose loss-of-function by damaging mutations may also cause primary microcephaly, was claimed to be the strongest evidence of admixture as of 2007. One type of the gene, known as D, has a high worldwide frequency (~70%), but a young coalescence age to its most recent common ancestor, ~37,000 years ago. The remaining types (non-D) coalesce to ~990,000 years ago, while the separation time between D and non-D is estimated at ~1,100,000 years ago. An evolutionary advantage of D is possible but controversial.[27]

The distribution of the D allele, high outside Africa but low in sub-Saharan Africa (29%), has been suggested to indicate involvement of an archaic Eurasian population, and estimates of the divergence time between modern humans and Neanderthals based on mitochondrial DNA are in favor of the Neanderthal lineage as the most likely archaic Homo population from which introgression into the modern human gene pool took place.[28][29] However, according to Svante Pääbo, ancient DNA from Croatian Neanderthal fossils found at Vindija shows that they carried the non-D allele of microcephalin, and there is no evidence for admixture or introgression.[30][31] A study published in May 2010 found that a Neanderthal individual from Mezzena Rockshelter (Monti Lessini, Italy), possessed the ancestral version of D, rather than the derived version which is common among Eurasian populations. The study did not rule out interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans but indicated that the particular DNA sample provided no support to the theory that Neanderthals contributed the derived allele of D to modern humans.[32]

Based on a 2001 study of the gene that results in red-headedness,[33] some commentators speculated that Neanderthals had red hair and that some red-headed and freckled humans today share some heritage with Neanderthals.[34][35] A 2007 study analysing Neanderthal DNA found that some Neanderthals were red-haired, but the mutation to the MC1R gene which caused red hair in Neanderthals is not found in modern humans.[36]

There is evidence that some immune related genes are of Neanderthal origin. HLA-C*0702, found in Neanderthals, is common in modern Europeans and Asians but rarely[37] seen in Africans. It is thought that this immune gene may have been picked up by humans after leaving Africa to help deal with European diseases that the Neanderthals had evolved defenses for.[38]

Anatomy

The most vocal proponent of the hybridization hypothesis on anatomical grounds has been Erik Trinkaus of Washington University.[39] Trinkaus claims various fossils as hybrid individuals, including the "child of Lagar Velho", a skeleton found at Lagar Velho in Portugal dated to about 24,000 years ago.[40] In a 2006 publication co-authored by Trinkaus, the fossils found in 1952 in the cave of Peștera Muierii, Romania, are likewise claimed as hybrids. [41]

In his work Neanderthal, Paul Jordan points out that without some interbreeding, certain features on some "modern" skulls of Eastern European Cro-Magnon heritage are hard to explain.[42] In another study, researchers have recently found in Peştera Muierilor, Romania, remains of European humans from 30 thousand years ago who possessed mostly diagnostic "modern" anatomical features, but also had distinct Neanderthal features not present in ancestral modern humans in Africa, including a large bulge at the back of the skull, a more prominent projection around the elbow joint, and a narrow socket at the shoulder joint. Analysis of one skeleton's shoulder showed that these humans, like Neanderthal, did not have the full capability for throwing spears.[43]

The paleontological analysis of modern-human emergence in Europe has been shifting from considerations of the Neanderthals to assessments of the biology and chronology of the earliest modern humans in western Eurasia. This focus, involving morphologically modern humans before 28,000 years ago, shows accumulating evidence that they present a variable mosaic of derived modern human, archaic human, and Neanderthal features.[41][44][45] Studies of fossils from the upper levels of the Sima de las Palomas, Murcia, Spain, dated to 40,000 years ago, establish the late persistence of Neanderthals in Iberia. This reinforces the conclusion that the Neanderthals were not merely swept away by advancing modern humans. In addition, the Palomas Neanderthals variably exhibit a series of modern-human features rare or absent in earlier Neanderthals. Either they were evolving on their own towards the modern-human pattern, or more likely, they had contact with early modern humans around the Pyrenees. If the latter is the case, it implies that the persistence of the Middle Paleolithic in Iberia was a matter of choice, and not cultural retardation.[46]

Modern-human findings in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal, of 24,500 years ago, allegedly featuring Neanderthal admixtures, have been published.[47] However the interpretation of the Portuguese specimen is disputed.[48]

Denisova hominin

Tests comparing the Denisova hominin genome with those of six modern humans – a ǃKung from South Africa, a Nigerian, a Frenchman, a Papua New Guinean, a Bougainville Islander and a Han Chinese – showed that between 4% and 6% of the genome of Melanesians (represented by the Papua New Guinean and Bougainville Islander) derives from a Denisovan population. This DNA was possibly introduced during the early migration to Melanesia. These findings are in concordance with the results of other comparison tests which show a relative increase in allele sharing between the Denisovan and the Aboriginal Australian genome, compared to other Eurasians and African populations, however it has been observed that Papuans, the population of Papua New Guinea, have more allele sharing than Aboriginal Australians.[49]

Melanesians may not be the only modern-day descendants of Denisovans. David Reich of Harvard University, in collaboration with Mark Stoneking of the Planck Institute team, found genetic evidence that Denisovan ancestry is shared by Melanesians, Australian Aborigines, and smaller scattered groups of people in Southeast Asia, such as the Mamanwa, a Negrito people in the Philippines. However, not all Negritos were found to possess Denisovan genes; Onge Andaman Islanders and Malaysian Jehai, for example, were found to have no significant Denisovan inheritance. These data place the interbreeding event in mainland Southeast Asia, and suggest that Denisovans once ranged widely over eastern Asia.[50][51][52]

Melanesians thus emerge as the most "archaic"-admixed population, having Denisovan/Neandertal-related admixture of ~8%.

The immune system's HLA alleles have drawn particular attention in the attempt to identify genes that may derive from archaic human populations. Although not present in the sequenced Denisova genome, the distribution pattern and divergence of HLA-B*73 from other HLA alleles has led to the suggestion that it introgressed from Denisovans into humans in west Asia. Indeed, half of the HLA alleles of modern Eurasians represent archaic HLA haplotypes, and have been inferred to be of Denisovan or Neanderthal origin.[53] The apparent over-representation of these alleles suggests a positive selective pressure for their retention in the human population.

Unknown Sub-Saharan African hominin

In 2011 Michael Hammer et al. at the University of Arizona studied DNA from two African hunter-gatherer groups, the Biaka Pygmies, the San and the West African agricultural Mandinka people. They concluded that roughly 2% of the genetic material found in these modern African populations was inserted into the human genome approximately 35,000 years ago. They also concluded these sequences must have come from a now-extinct member of the Homo genus that broke away from the modern human lineage around 700,000 years ago.[54]

In 2012 another study was done by Sarah Tishkoff et al. at the University of Pennsylvania. They tested 3 sub-Saharan African populations - Pygmies from Cameroon and the Hadza and Sandawe, both from Tanzania. The team found signs that the ancestors of the hunter-gatherers bred with different species of hominins, probably more than 40,000 years ago.[55]

See also

References

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