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[DRAFTING] Fig. 1. An animation of Archean felsic volcanism.

Archean felsic volcanic rocks (or Archean felsic volcanics, AFVs) are volcanic rocks that were formed during explosive eruption in the Archean Eon from 4 to 2.5 billion years ago. AFVs are rarer because they were formed in the early Earth and only contribute 10–20% in the Archean greenstone belt rock units[1]. Crucial AFVs are distributed only in the preserved Archean volcano-sedimentary sequences, which are known as greenstone belts[1][2][3].

Archean felsic volcanic activities commonly occur in submarine environments, which are different from modern eruptions. There are two types of volcanic rocks in AFVs: dacite and rhyolite[3]. They can be distinguished by their mineral assemblages, rock chemistry and rock layer relationship in the sequences.

AFVs are the key to reconstruct Archean geological environments[4][5]. It is utilised to date the timing of geological events and match distant rock units in separated Archean cratons.

Felsic granitoids are the most prevalent rock type in Archean terranes[1]. There are conflicts of the ages and the compositions between AFVs and granitoids[6]. They have implications in finding how the AFVs were formed and related to the granitoids[7][8].

Occurrence

Fig. 2. A map showing examples greenstone belts with documented Archean Felsic Volcanics localities. See citations in the table.

Felsic volcanic rocks are rare in Archean cratons[2]. Dacites and rhyolites on average only contribute ~15-20% in volcanic rocks of greenstone belts[1]. See Figure 2 and Table 1 for AFVs occurrence examples.

Stable Archean cratons survived from tectonic destruction. A lot of Archean cratons have a dome-and-keel geometry. Keels structure represent the greenstone belt that are intruded by domal batholith (magma chamber) of the TTG suites[9]. In such context, greenstone belts resemble the supracrustal rock and it is dominated by volcano-sedimentary units[5][8][10][11]. Some volcanic sequences can be several kilometers thick, such as the Warrawoona Group of Eastern Pibara Craton[12][13]. However, ultramafic and mafic units make up substantial volume of the volcanic units. The remaining volcanic units are extensive but thin felsic volcanic layers, such as Duffer Formation of the Warrawoona Group[12].

Modern volcanic processes along with its products are observed and recorded[14]. Yet, erosion constantly removes surface materials from the source. So it may lead to sampling bias when studying the Archean supracrustal rocks back in deep time[1].

Table 1. Examples of AFVs occurrence in greenstone belts
AFVs units/localities Age (Ma) Greenstone belt Craton Country/Region
Duffer Formation[5][4] 3468 ± 2[15] Warrawoona Eastern Pilbara Craton Australia
Marda Tank[16] 2734 ± 3[17] Marda Volcanic Complex Yilgarn Craton Australia
Kallehadlu Felsic volcanics[10] 2677 ± 2[18] Gadag-Chitradurga Dharwar Craton India
Kovero schist belt[19] 2754 ± 6[19] Ilomantsi Baltic Shield Finland
Sample SM/GR/93/57[20] 3710 ± 4[21] Isua North Atlantic Craton Greenland
Musk massive sulphide deposit[22] 2689.3 +2.4/-1.8[22] Yellowknife Slave Province Canada
Blake River Group[23][24] 2694.1±4.5[25] Abitibi Superior Province Canada
Upper Michipicoten volcanic sequences[26] 2696 ± 2[27] Wawa Superior Province Canada
Bulawayan Group[28] 2615 ± 28[28] Harare Zimbabwean Craton Zimbabwe
Onverwacht Group[29] 3445 ± 3[29] Barberton Kaapvaal Craton South Africa

Characteristics

Mineralogy and texture

By meaning "felsic", the volcanic rocks are rich in quartz and feldspars. A typical mineral assemblage is quartz + feldspar (albite/oligoclase) + amphibole (chlorite) + micas (biotite and/or muscovite)[30]. The mineralogy seems similar with modern rhyolites and dacites. Volcanics are aphanitic, whereas some exhibits porphyritic texture that certain larger minerals (phenocrysts) are visible by eyes.

Fig. 3. Illustrated sketch of fiamme - recrystalised quartz with flame-like ending points, in Archean Woman Lake rhyolitic tuff, Superior Province, Canada. Adopted and modified from photograph of Thurston (1980)[31].

AFVs also include felsic tuff that was formed when tephra was consolidated. It is composed of volcanic ash, glass shards and lithic fragments. Reported eutaxitic tuff from Superior Province, Canada (Figure 3)[32], contains lenticular fiamme. When hot pumice deposits rapidly, it is recrystallised and welded into quartz with flame-like ending tips. This texture represents a hot vapour-phase emplacement of the fragmented volcanic materials on the Earth's surface.

Flow bands are present in massive, uniform dacitic flow during the movement of lava[30]. When the viscous lava flow encounters a surface, friction drags the mobile lava and forms internal banding.

Structureless hyaloclastite is commonly found in AFVs[12][30][31][33]. In submarine environments, water quenches and cools lava rapidly during volcanic eruption. The flow is fragmented and form glassy volcanic breccia.

Geochemistry

The assemblages of AFVs are calc-alkaline in the whole-rock composition[26]. Such magmatic series indicates fractional crystallisation of magma leading to low magnesium and iron content in the rock and forms dacite or rhyolite. Magma is a mixture of various minerals. When minerals crystallise from the molten magma, they are progressively removed and dissociated from the melt. The last proportion of the melt is strongly fractionated, causing richness in quartz and feldspars that make AFVs felsic.

Dacite and rhyolite are characterised by high silica (SiO2) content from 62 to 78 wt%[34]. The average composition of AFVs in greenstone belts is between dacite to rhyolite (Table 2)[1][34]. In comparison, the average composition after Archean (<2.5 Ga) is alike rhyolite, indicating a more felsic shift in felsic volcanism[1]. However, this average may be biased because of weathering right after deposition or metamorphism during later stages of deformation[8].

Table 2. Average composition of felsic volcanics[1]
Time SiO2 (wt%) Na2O+K2O (wt%) Rock Classification[34]
Archean 72.2–73.0 6.4–6.8 Dacite–Rhyolite
Post-Archean 73.0–73.6 7.0–8.0 Rhyolite

In addition, AFVs have high zircon abundance. Incompatible elements, like zirconium, are reluctant to substitute into early-forming crystals. So, they tend to remain in the melt. In strongly fractionated felsic magma, zircon is easily saturated. As a result, zircom is common in felsic rocks[35]. Timing of felsic volcanism and tectonic constraints can be identified by radiometric dating and isotopic analysis.

AFVs show a different trend in rare-earth elements (REE). They are depleted in Light REE but enriched in Heavy REE compared to post-Archean felsic volcanics[1].

Archean Felsic Volcanism

Eruption style

In Archean, underwater eruptions of felsic lava were common[30][33][36]. It is evident by coarse volcanic breccia formed in situ, hyaloclastite or underwater pyroclastic deposits (clastic rock, composed of tephra only). Since felsic magma is viscous, volcanic eruptions that form dacite or rhyolite are explosive and violent. The Archean felsic eruption may be assigned to Vesuvius eruption type in the present day[30].

Rhyolitic flows are not uncommon in Archean but it is less common in the modern volcanic environment[36]. It is predicted that viscous felsic eruption often causes pyroclastic flow (hot, dense gas with volcanic fragments) instead of fluid lava flow. However, if the rhyolitic lava is is still molten during extrusion, it can behave and flow like fluid flow[33][37].

Subaqueous deposits

Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of documented subaqueous felsic lava deposits. (a) Submarine lava flow, based on Héré Creek rhyolite (modified from De Rosen-Spence et al., 1980[33]). (b) Submarine lava dome, based on the Gold Lake dome and flow complex (modified from Lambert et al., 1990)[38]. Illustration adopted from Sylvester et al. (1997) in de Wit & Ashwal (1997)[6].

Felsic lava flow and lava dome are the two common types of underwater deposits formed by AFVs (Fig. 4)[33]. Documented Archean lava structures are distinctive from post-Archean felsic lava because underwater eruptions are so rare in post-Archean[36]. The dacitic or rhyolitic lava flows are quenched right after the eruption[12][33]. When water is in touch with the flow, it quickly cools the lava down[37]. This causes the lava to solidify, break up as clasts and accumulate on the flow fronts to form breccia[30].

Lava flow

Effusive felsic lava flows elongate several kilometres long. During an eruption, lava continuously wells out from the vent, then starts to flow outward on the sea floor. Due to quenching, lava is rapidly fragmented to form breccia[37]. A new lobe of lava is injected inside the breccia but it is cooled down slower and push the flow further outwards[33].

Lava dome

Short, stocky dome with subsequent pyroclastic deposits extend less than few kilometres long. When explosion eruption occurs, volcanic fragments would be deposited by violent pyroclastic flows. Coarse breccia would be formed as a result[38]. Submarine sediments would subsequently be deposited along the steep flank of the volcano[38]. Submarine landslides would occur to form turbidites[38].

Stratigraphic significance

AFVs is important to deduce absolute age of the rock units in greenstone belts[6]. Felsic eruptions are episodic so that the felsic volcanic layers are distinctive stratigraphic units[5]. Also, AFVs are distributed vastly across long distances because of its extensive deposition[12][13][33][38]. However, the rock sequences of greenstone belts are commonly disputed by later deformation, such as regional folding or intrusion of granitoids[12]. By identifying these felsic sequences and dating their time of formation, stratigraphic units of different locations can be correlated despite the obstacles or discontinuity in between AFVs[12][38].

Timing of volcanism

The geochronology of Archean events strongly relies on U-Pb dating[5][20] or Lu-Hf dating[39]. Since mafic rocks, such as basalt, is lack of zircon, only the age of felsic rocks can be dated among the volcanic rocks in greenstone belts[6]. As AFVs are episodically deposited in between mafic layers, the age range of a particular mafic layer can be constrained by the upper and lower felsic volcanic layers[5].

In addition, because of absolute dating, by determining the specific ages of the rocks, the episodic occurrence and the duration of felsic volcanism are revealed[12].

Relationships between Archean felsic volcanics and granitoids

From TTG to GMS granitoids

Two plutonic, igneous rock suites forms 50% of Archean cratons[1]. They are (1) Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) suites and (2) Granite-Monzonite-Syenite (GMS) suites in chronological order. They are the batholith that formed the volcanics on the Earth's surface[24]. Later they intruded the supracrustal rocks of similar age and composition in Archean[9]. The uprising magma bodies deformed the surface greenstone belt in a cratonic scale[3].

Table 3. Comparison between 2 common Archean Granitoids[8][40]
Relative age Granitoid Important mineral present Magma origin
Older (1st granitoid) Tonalite-Trondhjemite-Granodiorite (TTG) Na-rich plagioclase + garnet + amphibole hydrated mafic crust
Younger (2nd granitoid) Granite-Monzonite-Syenite (GMS) K-feldspar felsic crust

The two kinds of granitoids have different magma origins: melting of water-rich mafic materials formed older sodium-rich TTG and felsic materials (e.g. TTG and/or sediments[41]) formed younger potassium-rich GMS (see Table 3)[8][40]. They imply gradual chemical changes of the in the magma and the Earth's crust[8].

[DRAFTING] Fig 5. Two implications on connection of AFVs and granitoids. Adopted from Agangi et al. (2018)[8].

Conflicting compositions

AFVs' record shows a peculiar trend. The eruption of AFVs and plutonic activities are largely synchronised as show in overlapping zircon ages[8]. On contrary, the chemical compositions of some AFVs are similar to that of GMS but they are much older than GMS[2]. For example, there is a GMS-like rhyolite (abnormally more enriched in heavy REE than other AFVs) is not equivalent to the TTG in the same period at Abitibi belt[24][42]. The composition of AFVs should have been altering in the concurrently with shifting granitoid composition[8].

Implications

The older GMS-like AFVs formed with similar age of TTG has two implications[8]:

  1. GMS may have been intruded at a very shallow depth and GMS-like volcanics. Later, intense erosion rips up all GMS suites and deposited at a proximal distance. If this was true, then GMS and TTG intruded the crust together at the same time. No solid evidence is present yet but the irregular geochemical fingerprints may link both to TTG or GMS[8].
  2. GMS is concentrated at the upper crust and TTG at deeper intermediate crust. Later, GMS as well as GMS-like volcanics are eroded and deposit as sediments. The detrital zircons may show a range of mixed GMS and TTG geochemical signature.

See Also

References

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