Radiocarbon dating

Radiocarbon dating (or simply carbon dating) is a radiometric dating technique that uses the decay of carbon-14 (¹⁴
C) to estimate the age of organic materials, such as wood and leather, up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Carbon dating was presented to the world by Willard Libby in 1949, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Since its introduction it has been used to date many items, including samples of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Shroud of Turin, enough Egyptian artifacts to supply a chronology of Dynastic Egypt, and Ötzi the Iceman.

The dating technique is based on the fact that carbon is found in various forms, including the main stable isotope (¹²
C) and an unstable isotope (¹⁴
C) in all organic matter. Through photosynthesis, plants absorb both forms from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it contains a ratio of ¹⁴
C to ¹²
C, but, as the ¹⁴
C decays with no possibility of replenishment, the ratio decreases at a regular rate. This rate is known as the half-life of ¹⁴
C. The measurement of ¹⁴
C decay provides an indication of the age of any carbon-based material (a raw radiocarbon age). However, over time there are small fluctuations in the ratio of ¹⁴
C to ¹²
C in the atmosphere, fluctuations that have been noted in natural records of the past, such as sequences of tree rings and cave deposits. These records allow for the fine-tuning, or calibration, of the indications derived from measuring the carbon ratio. A raw radiocarbon age, once calibrated, yields a calendar date.

One of the most frequent uses of radiocarbon dating is to estimate the age of organic remains from archaeological sites.

Physical and chemical background

1: Formation of carbon-14
2: Decay of carbon-14
3: The equation is for living organisms, and the inequality is for dead organisms, in which the ¹⁴C then decays (See 2).

Carbon has two stable, nonradioactive isotopes: carbon-12 (¹²C), and carbon-13 (¹³C), and a radioactive isotope, carbon-14 (¹⁴C), also known as radiocarbon. The half-life of ¹⁴C is about 5,730 years, so the concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to reduce over a period of thousands of years due to radioactive decay. However, ¹⁴C is constantly being produced in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere by cosmic rays, which generate neutrons that in turn create carbon-14 when they strike nitrogen-14 (¹⁴N) atoms. The process is described by the following nuclear reaction, where n represents a neutron and p represents a proton:

$n+\mathrm {^{14}_{7}N^{+}} \rightarrow \mathrm {^{14}_{6}C} +p$

Once produced, the ¹⁴C quickly combines with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form carbon dioxide (CO₂). Carbon dioxide produced in this way mixes with the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via photosynthesis. Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the biosphere. The combination of the ocean, the atmosphere and the biosphere is referred to as the carbon exchange reservoir.

If it is assumed that the cosmic ray flux is constant over long periods of time, then carbon-14 is produced at a constant rate, and since it is also lost through radioactivity at a constant rate, the proportion of radioactive to non-radioactive carbon is constant. The actual ratio of ¹⁴C to ¹²C in the carbon exchange reservoir is 1.5 parts of ¹⁴C to 10¹² parts of ¹²C. In addition, about 1% of the reservoir is made up of the stable isotope ¹³C.

Invention of the method

In the mid-1940s, Willard Libby, then at the University of Chicago, realized that the decay of carbon-14 might lead to a method of dating organic matter. Libby published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include carbon-14 as well as non-radioactive carbon. Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with methane collected from sewage works in Baltimore, and after isotopically enriching their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained radioactive carbon-14. By contrast, methane created from petroleum had no radiocarbon activity. The results were summarized in a paper in Science in 1947, and the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin. Libby and James Arnold proceeded to experiment with samples of wood of known age. For example, two wood samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings, Zoser and Sneferu, independently dated to 2625 B.C. plus or minus 75 years, were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 B.C. plus or minus 250 years. These measurements, published in Science in 1949, launched the "radiocarbon revolution" in archaeology, and soon led to dramatic changes in scholarly chronologies. In 1960, Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for this work.

Calculating ages

While a plant or animal is alive, it is exchanging carbon with its surroundings, so the carbon it contains will have the same proportion of ¹⁴C as the biosphere. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire ¹⁴C, but the ¹⁴C it contains will continue to decay, and so the proportion of radiocarbon in the remains of the plant or animal will gradually reduce. Because ¹⁴C decays at a known rate, the reduction in radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it is since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon—the older the sample, the less ¹⁴C will be left.

The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is

$N=N_{0}e^{-\lambda t}\,$

where N₀ is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample (at time t = 0), and N is the number of atoms left after time t. λ is a constant that depends on the particular isotope; for a given isotope it is equal to the reciprocal of the mean-life—i.e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay. The mean-life, denoted by τ, of ¹⁴C is 8,267 years, so the equation above can be rewritten as:

$t=8267ln(N/N_{0})$

The ratio of ¹⁴C atoms in the original sample, N_0, is taken to be the same as the ratio in the biosphere, so measuring N, the number of ¹⁴C atoms currently in the sample, allows the calculation of t, the age of the sample.

The half-life of a radioactive isotope (the time it takes for half of the sample to decay, usually denoted by T_1/2) is a more familiar concept than the mean-life, so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean-life, it is more usual to quote the value of ¹⁴C's half-life than its mean-life. The currently accepted value for the half-life of radiocarbon is 5,730 years. The mean-life and half-life are related by the following equation:

$T_{\frac {1}{2}}=\tau \cdot \ln 2$

The above calculations make several assumptions: for example, that the level of ¹⁴C in the biosphere has remained constant over time. In fact the amount of ¹⁴C in the biosphere has varied significantly, and as a result the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources, using a calibration curve, which is described in more detail below. For over a decade after Libby's initial work, the accepted value of the half-life for ¹⁴C was 5,568 years; this was improved in the early 1960s to 5,730 years, which meant that many calculated dates in published papers were now incorrect (the error is about 3%). However, it is possible to incorporate a correction for the half-life value into the calibration curve, and so it has become standard practice to quote measured radiocarbon dates in "radiocarbon years", meaning that the dates are calculated using Libby's half-life value and have not been calibrated.  This approach has the advantage of maintaining consistency with the early papers, and also avoids the risk of a double correction for the Libby half-life value.

Carbon exchange reservoir

Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the ¹⁴C in each reservoir

The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how much carbon they store, and in how long it takes for the ¹⁴C generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them. The atmosphere, which is where ¹⁴C is generated, contains about 1.9% of the total carbon in the reservoirs, and the ¹⁴C it contains mixes in less than 7 years. The ratio of ¹⁴C to ¹²C in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs: if another reservoir has a lower ratio of ¹⁴C to ¹²C, it indicates that the carbon is older, and hence some of the ¹⁴C has decayed. The surface ocean is an example: it contains 2.4% of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, but there is only about 95% as much ¹⁴C as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has over 90% of the carbon in the reservoir. Water in the deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters, and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water, with depleted ¹⁴C, and water recently at the surface, with ¹⁴C in equilibrium with the atmosphere.

Living creatures in the surface ocean have ¹⁴C ratios that are the same as that of the waters they live in. Using the calculation method given above to calculate the age of marine life typically gives an age of about 400 years. The terrestrial biosphere, however, is in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and has the same ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio as the atmosphere. The terrestrial biosphere contains about 1.3% of the carbon in the reservoir; the marine biosphere has a mass of less than 1% of its terrestrial counterpart and is not shown on the diagram. Accumulated dead organic matter, both of plants and animals, exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly 3, and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment it has a ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio lower than that of the biosphere.

Libby's original exchange reservoir hypothesis assumed that the exchange reservoir is constant all over the world. The calibration method also assumes that the temporal variation in ¹⁴
C level is global, such that a small number of samples from a specific year are sufficient for calibration. However, since Libby's early work was published (1950 to 1958), latitudinal and continental variations in the carbon exchange reservoir have been observed by Hessel de Vries (1958; as reviewed by Lerman et al.). Subsequently, methods have been developed that allow the correction of these so-called reservoir effects, including:

• When CO
  ₂ is transferred from the atmosphere to the oceans, it initially shares the ¹⁴
  C concentration of the atmosphere. However, turnaround times of CO
  ₂ in the ocean are similar to the half-life of ¹⁴
  C (making ¹⁴
  C also a dating tool for ocean water). Marine organisms feed on this "old" carbon, and thus their radiocarbon age reflects the time of CO
  ₂ uptake by the ocean rather than the time of death of the organism. This marine reservoir effect is partly handled by a special marine calibration curve, but local deviations of several hundred years exist.

• Erosion and immersion of carbonate rocks (which are generally older than 80,000 years and so shouldn't contain measurable ¹⁴
  C) causes an increase in ¹²
  C and ¹³
  C in the exchange reservoir, which depends on local weather conditions and can vary the ratio of carbon that living organisms incorporate. This is believed to be negligible for the atmosphere and atmosphere-derived carbon, since most erosion will flow into the sea. The atmospheric ¹⁴
  C concentration may differ substantially from the concentration in local water reservoirs. Eroded from CaCO₃ or organic deposits, old carbon may be assimilated easily and provide diluted ¹⁴
  C carbon into trophic chains. So the method is less reliable for such materials, as well as for samples derived from animals with such plants in their food chain.

• Volcanic eruptions eject large amounts of carbon into the air, causing an increase in ¹²
  C and ¹³
  C in the exchange reservoir and can vary the exchange ratio locally. This explains the often irregular dating achieved in volcanic areas.

• The earth is not affected evenly by cosmic radiation, the magnitude of the radiation at a particular place depends on both its altitude and the local strength of the earth's magnetic field strength, thus causing minor variation in the local ¹⁴
  C production. This is accounted for by having calibration curves for different locations of the globe. However, this could not always be performed, as tree rings for calibration were only recoverable from certain locations in 1958. The rebuttals by Münnich et al. and by Barker both maintain that, while variations of carbon-14 exist, they are about an order of magnitude smaller than those implied by Crowe's calculations.

These effects were first confirmed when samples of wood from around the world, which all had the same age (based on tree ring analysis), showed deviations from the dendrochronological age. Calibration techniques based on tree-ring samples have contributed to increased accuracy since 1962, when they were accurate to 700 years at worst.

Dating considerations

Accurate dating

In 1958, Hessel de Vries showed that the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere varies with both time and locality. In order to obtain the most accurate results in carbon dating, calibration curves must be employed.

Other mechanisms of producing C-14

¹⁴
C can also be produced at ground level at a rate of 1 x 10⁻⁴ atoms per gram per second, which is not considered significant enough to impact on dating without a known other source of neutrons.

C-14 uptake in living organisms

Plants and all other photosynthesizing organisms (algae, some bacteria, some protists) use atmospheric carbon dioxide in the photosynthesis. The products of photosynthesis are ingested by animals. At the same time, all living organisms fueled by carbon molecules release carbon dioxide in the process of cellular respiration.

The decay of organic matter

This means that almost all living organisms are constantly exchanging carbon-14 atoms with their environment. This exchange stops when the organism dies. Nevertheless, release of CO
₂ from the organism continues, by processes of molecular decay (disintegration). These processes, however, do not change the fraction of C-14 relative to the other two species of carbon (C-12 and C-13) in decaying organic matter.

Radioactive decay of C-14

It is a process of radioactive decay (i.e. beta decay) that gradually decreases the fraction of the C-14 isotope relative to the other two isotopes of carbon. The half-life of C-14 is 5,730 ± 40 years. This means that the fraction of C-14 relative to each of the two other species of carbon (C-12 and C-13) declines by half in approximately 5,730 years. The equation for the radioactive decay of C-14 involves the production of both a standard nitrogen atom species (N-14), an electron (
e⁻
, also called a beta-particle, β-particle ), and a subatomic particle called an electron antineutrino (
ν
_e):

$\mathrm {~_{6}^{14}C} \rightarrow \mathrm {~_{7}^{14}N} +e^{-}+{\bar {\nu }}_{e}$

Methods

Radiocarbon dating of soil organic matter (SOM) is problematic because SOM accumulates from heterogeneous sources. Fractionation of the heterogeneous organic carbon sources limits the application and interpretation of carbon dating of SOM. To remedy the inconsistencies in previous methods of carbon-14 dating of SOM, a high-temperature, pyrolysis-combustion technique was used. A combustion system used by the Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS), under vacuum, fractions the SOM into a volatile and residual fraction. The volatile residue contains low-molecular-weight organic compounds, whereas, the residual residue contains high- molecular-weight organic compounds.

Preceding extraction of carbon dioxide from SOM samples, pretreatment is necessary. Each sample must be pretreated with heated 2 N HCl followed by rinsing with deionized water and vacuum filtration. Drying of the sample in a furnace will reduce the accumulation of water within the system.

The combustion system utilized by the ISGS consists of an inner and an outer quartz tube. To ensure pure CO₂ production, a vacuum of -25 psi must be established. During volatile pyrolysis, the inner tube is purged with argon while the outer tube is purged with oxygen. As the oxygen is purged through the outer tube, the volatile compounds released from the sample are carried by the argon into the outer tube where they are oxidized at 800 degree Celsius to form carbon dioxide. The CO₂ and other gases produced from the volatile fraction are then passed through a cupric oxide furnace and wash traps including 0.5 N AgNO₃ solution and a solution of 7.3 g Na₂Cr₂O₇ in 50% H₂SO₄ for purification purposes. After the filtration, the CO₂ is then passed through a dry ice-isopropanol trap to trap the water and the CO₂ is finally collected in liquid nitrogen traps. The end of the volatile fraction is marked by the disappearance of the flame in the ignition furnace. Once the purified CO₂ is transferred, the residual pyrolysis begins with the purging of the inner tube with oxygen and outer tube with argon. In pyrolysis of large samples, a stainless steel chamber and a crucible furnace connected to the inner tube of the combustion system must be used.

The purified CO₂ is then converted to benzene for liquid scintillation spectrometry.

Measurements and scales

The use of accelerator mass spectrometers can improve the sensitivity of radiocarbon dating.

Measurements are traditionally made by counting the radioactive decay of individual carbon atoms by gas proportional counting or by liquid scintillation counting. For samples of sufficient size (several grams of carbon), this method is still widely used in the 2000s. Among others, all the tree ring samples used for the calibration curves (see below) were determined by these counting techniques. Such decay counting, however, is relatively insensitive and subject to large statistical uncertainties for small samples. When there is little carbon-14 to begin with, the long radiocarbon half-life means that very few of the carbon-14 atoms will decay during the time allotted for their detection, resulting in few disintegrations per minute.

The sensitivity of radiocarbon dating has been greatly increased by the use of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). With this technique ¹⁴
C atoms can be detected and counted directly, as opposed to detecting radioactive decay. Radiocarbon AMS samples are prepared by completely burning the sample, collecting the resulting carbon dioxide, and reducing it to a solid carbon target for sputtering atomic carbon ions into the mass spectrometer. This method allows dating samples containing only a few milligrams of carbon.

Raw radiocarbon ages (i.e., those not calibrated) are usually reported in "years Before Present" (BP). This is the number of radiocarbon years before 1950, based on a nominal (and assumed constant – see "calibration" below) level of carbon-14 in the atmosphere equal to the 1950 level. These raw dates are also based on a slightly incorrect historic value for the radiocarbon half-life. Such value is used for consistency with earlier published dates (see "Radiocarbon half-life" below). See the section on computation for the basis of the calculations.

Radiocarbon dating laboratories generally report an uncertainty for each date. For example, 3000 ± 30 BP indicates a standard deviation of 30 radiocarbon years. Traditionally, this included only the statistical counting uncertainty. However, some laboratories supplied an "error multiplier" that could be multiplied by the uncertainty to account for other sources of error in the measuring process. More recently, laboratories try to quote the overall uncertainty, which is determined from control samples of known age and verified by international intercomparison exercises. In 2008, a typical uncertainty better than ±40 radiocarbon years can be expected for samples younger than 10,000 years. This, however, is only a small part of the uncertainty of the final age determination (see section Calibration below).

Samples older than the upper age-limit cannot be dated because the small number of remaining intrinsic ¹⁴
C atoms will be obscured by the ¹⁴
C background atoms introduced into the samples while they still resided in the environment, during sample preparation, or in the detection instrument. As of 2007, the limiting age for a 1 milligram sample of graphite is about ten half-lives, approximately 60,000 years. This age is derived from that of the calibration blanks used in an analysis, whose ¹⁴
C content is assumed to be the result of contamination during processing (as a result of this, some facilities will not report an age greater than 60,000 years for any sample).

A variety of sample processing and instrument-based constraints have been postulated to explain the upper age-limit. To examine instrument-based background activities in the AMS instrument of the W. M. Keck Carbon Cycle Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory of the University of California, a set of natural diamonds were dated. Natural diamond samples from different sources within rock formations with standard geological ages in excess of 100 Ma yielded¹⁴
C apparent ages 64,920 ± 430 BP to 80,000 ± 1100 BP as reported in 2007.

Calibration

The need for calibration

Calibration curve for the radiocarbon dating scale. Data sources: Reimer, P.J., et al. (1998). Samples with a real date more recent than AD 1950 are dated and/or tracked using the N- & S-Hemisphere graphs. See following figure.

Atmospheric ¹⁴
C, New Zealand and Austria. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of ¹⁴
C in the Northern Hemisphere.

Dates may be expressed as either uncalibrated or calibrated years (the latter abbreviated as cal or cal.). A raw BP date cannot be used directly as a calendar date, because the level of atmospheric ¹⁴
C has not been strictly constant during the span of time that can be radiocarbon dated, producing radiocarbon plateaus. The level is affected by variations in the cosmic ray intensity, which is, in turn, affected by variations in the Earth's magnetosphere. In addition, there are substantial reservoirs of carbon in organic matter, the ocean, ocean sediments (see methane hydrate), and sedimentary rocks. Changes in the Earth's climate can affect the carbon flows between these reservoirs and the atmosphere, leading to changes in the atmosphere's ¹⁴
C fraction.

As the graph to the right shows, the uncalibrated, raw BP date underestimates the actual age by 3,000 years at 15000 BP. The underestimation generally runs about 10% to 20%, with 3% of that underestimation attributable to the use of 5,568 years as the half-life of ¹⁴
C instead of the more accurate 5,730 years. To maintain consistency with a large body of published research, the out-of-date half-life figure is still used in all radiocarbon measurements.

An uncalibrated radiocarbon date is abbreviated as ¹⁴
C yr BP or C14 yr BP or simply BP, although the last is ambiguously also sometimes used with dating methods other than radiocarbon, such as stratigraphy. A calibrated, or calendar date, is abbreviated as cal yr BP or cal BP, interpretable as "calibrated years before present" or "calendar years before present". In academic practice calibrated dates are generally presented along with their source uncalibrated dates, as the accuracy of the presently established calibration curve varies by time period.

The standard radiocarbon calibration curve is continuously being refined on the basis of new data gathered from tree rings, coral, and other studies. In addition to the natural variation of the curve throughout time, the carbon-14 level has also been affected by human activities in recent centuries. From the beginning of the industrial revolution in the 18th century to the 1950s, the fractional level of ¹⁴
C decreased because of the admixture of CO
₂ into the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels. This decline, which is known as the Suess effect, also affects the ¹³
C isotope. However, atmospheric ¹⁴
C was almost doubled during the 1950s and 1960s, due to atmospheric atomic bomb tests.

Calibration methods

The raw radiocarbon dates, in BP years, are calibrated to give calendar dates. Standard calibration curves are available, based on comparison of radiocarbon dates of samples that can be dated independently by other methods such as examination of tree growth rings (dendrochronology), deep ocean sediment cores, lake sediment varves, coral samples, and speleothems (cave deposits).

The calibration curves can vary significantly from a straight line, so comparison of uncalibrated radiocarbon dates (e.g., plotting them on a graph or subtracting dates to give elapsed time) is likely to give misleading results. There are also significant plateaus in the curves, such as the one from 11,000 to 10,000 radiocarbon years BP, which is believed to be associated with changing ocean circulation during the Younger Dryas period. Over the historical period (from 0 to 10,000 years BP), the average width of the uncertainty of calibrated dates was found to be 335 years - in well-behaved regions of the calibration curve the width decreased to about 113 years, while in ill-behaved regions it increased to a maximum of 801 years. Significantly, in the ill-behaved regions of the calibration curve, increasing the precision of the measurements does not have a significant effect on increasing the accuracy of the dates.

The 2004 version of the calibration curve extends back quite accurately to 26,000 years BP. Any errors in the calibration curve do not contribute more than ±16 years to the measurement error during the historic and late prehistoric periods (0–6,000 yrs BP) and no more than ±163 years over the entire 26,000 years of the curve, although its shape can reduce the accuracy as mentioned above.

In late 2009, the journal Radiocarbon announced agreement on the INTCAL09 standard, which extends a more accurate calibration curve to 50,000 years. The results of research on varves in Lake Suigetsu, Japan, which was announced in 2012, realised this aim. "In most cases, the radiocarbon levels deduced from marine and other records have not been too far wrong. However, having a truly terrestrial record gives us better resolution and confidence in radiocarbon dating," said Bronk Ramsey. "It also allows us to look at the differences between the atmosphere and oceans and study the implications for our understanding of the marine environment as part of the global carbon cycle."

Speleothem studies extend ¹⁴
C calibration

Speleothems (such as stalagmites) are calcium carbonate deposits that form from drips in limestone caves. Individual speleothems can be tens of thousands of years old. Scientists are attempting to extend the record of atmospheric carbon-14 by measuring radiocarbon in speleothems which have been independently dated using uranium-thorium dating. These results are improving the calibration for the radiocarbon technique and extending its usefulness to 45,000 years into the past. Initial results from a cave in the Bahamas suggested a peak in the amount of carbon-14 that was twice as high as modern levels. A recent study does not reproduce this extreme shift and suggests that analytical problems may have produced the anomalous result.

Examples

• Ancient footprints of Acahualinca
• Chauvet Cave
• The Dead Sea Scrolls
• Dolaucothi
• Eve of Naharon
• Haraldskær Woman
• Kennewick Man
• Shroud of Turin
• Skeleton Lake
• Thera eruption
• Vinland map

See also

• Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory
• Carbon sequestration
• Cosmogenic isotopes
• Discussion of half-life and average-life or mean-lifetime
• Environmental isotopes
• Old wood

References

• Aitken, M.J. (1990). Science-based Dating in Archaeology. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-49309-9.
• Bowman, Sheridan (1995) [1990]. Radiocarbon Dating. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2047-2.
• Brown, Larry (2010) [2006]. Chemistry for Engineering Students (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. ISBN 978-1-4390-4791-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Currie, L. (2004). "The Remarkable Metrological History of Radiocarbon Dating II" (PDF). J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 109: 185–217.
• Friedrich, M. (2004). "The 12,460-Year Hohenheim Oak and Pine Tree-Ring Chronology from Central Europe—a Unique Annual Record for Radiocarbon Calibration and Paleoenvironment Reconstructions". Radiocarbon. 46: 1111–1122. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Goudie, Andrew & Cuff, David J. (eds.) (2001). Encyclopedia of Global Change: Environmental Change and Human Society, Volume 1. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514518-6
• Gove, H. E. (1999) From Hiroshima to the Iceman. The Development and Applications of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. Bristol: Institute of Physics Publishing.
• Kovar, Anton J. (1966). "Problems in Radiocarbon Dating at Teotihuacan". American Antiquity. 31 (3). Society for American Archaeology: 427–430. doi:10.2307/2694748. JSTOR 2694748.
• Lorenz, R. D. (2002). "Radiocarbon on Titan". Meteoritics and Planetary Science. 37 (6): 867–874. Bibcode:2002M&PS...37..867L. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2002.tb00861.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Mook, W. G. (1999). "Reporting ¹⁴
  C activities and concentrations" (PDF). Radiocarbon. 41: 227–239. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Warneck, Peter (2000). Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere. London: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-735632-0.
• Weart, S. (2004) The Discovery of Global Warming - Uses of Radiocarbon Dating.
• Willis, E.H. (1996) Radiocarbon dating in Cambridge: some personal recollections. A Worm's Eye View of the Early Days.

External links

• Radiocarbon - The main international journal of record for research articles and date lists relevant to 14C
• C14dating.com - General information on Radiocarbon dating
• calib.org - Calibration program, Marine Reservoir database, and bomb calibration
• NOSAMS: National Ocean Sciences Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
• Discussion of calibration (from U Oxford)
• Several calibration programs can be found at www.radiocarbon.org
• CalPal Online (Cologne Radiocarbon Calibration & Paleoclimate Research Package)
• OxCal program (Oxford Calibration)
• Fairbanks' Radiocarbon Calibration program (for prior to 12400 BP)
• Notes on radiocarbon dating, including movies illustrating the atomic physics (from UC Santa Barbara)
• Carbon Dating-How it works?
• How is physics used in archaeology? (from physics.org)