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BET inhibitor

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BET inhibitors are a class of drugs with anti-cancer, immunosuppressive, and other effects in clinical trials in the United States and Europe and widely used in research. These molecules reversibly bind the bromodomains of Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal motif (BET) proteins BRD2, BRD3, BRD4, and BRDT, and prevent protein-protein interaction between BET proteins and acetylated histones and transcription factors.[1][2]

Discovery and development

Thienodiazepine BET inhibitors were discovered by scientists at Yoshitomi Pharmaceuticals (now Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma) in the early 1990s, and their potential both as anti-inflammatories and anti-cancer agents noted.[3][4] However, these molecules remained largely unknown until 2010 when both the use of JQ1 in NUT midline carcinoma[5] and of I-BET 762 in sepsis were published.[6] Since this time a number of molecules have been described that are capable of targeting BET bromodomains.[7]

BET inhibitors have been described that are able to discriminate between the first and second bromodomains of BET proteins (BD1 vs BD2). However, no BET inhibitor has yet been described that can reliably distinguish between BET family members (BRD2 vs BRD3 vs BRD4 vs BRDT).[8] Only in the research context has targeting individual BET proteins been achieved by mutating them to be more sensitive to a derivative of JQ1 / I-BET 762.[9]

Mechanism of action in cancer

Interest in using BET inhibitors in cancer began with the observation that chromosomal translocations involving BET genes BRD3 and BRD4 drove the pathogenesis the rare cancer NUT midline carcinoma. Subsequent research uncovered the dependence of some forms of acute myeloid leukemia,[10][11] multiple myeloma and acute lymphoblastic leukemia[12] on the BET protein BRD4, and the sensitivity of these cancers to BET inhibitors. In many cases, expression of the growth promoting transcription factor Myc is blocked by BET inhibitors.[13][14][15] BRD2 and BRD3 are functionally redundant and may be more important as therapeutic targets than is appreciated in studies depleting each BET protein individually.[16] Recent studies also showed that BET inhibitors can be instrumental in overcoming resistance to other targeted therapies when used in combination therapies. Examples include use of BET inhibitors in combination with γ-secretase inhibitors for T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and RAF-inhibitor (vemurafenib) for RAF-inhibitor resistant melanomas carrying the BRAFV600E mutation.[17][18]

Use in other applications

BET inhibition prevents death in mouse models of sepsis, attenuates autoimmunity, and lessens damage from overactive inflammatory responses in the lung.[19][20][6]

Pre-clinical studies have also demonstrated efficacy in applications that would require chronic administration (see below: heart failure and male contraception). As early studies in humans have already demonstrated significant toxicity in the form of thrombocytopenia, and these drugs are likely to have major immunomodulatory effects, it is unclear what the range of safe feasible applications for these molecules will be.

BET inhibitors have been shown to limit the development of heart failure in mouse models.[21][22]

The use of BET inhibitors has been proposed as a method of male birth control due to their ability to inhibit the testis-specific BET protein BRDT.[23][24]

Specific BET inhibitors

BET inhibitors have been developed by publicly funded research labs as well as pharmaceutical companies including GlaxoSmithKline, Oncoethix (purchased by Merck & Co. in 2014[25]), Oncoethix,[26] Constellation pharmaceuticals,[27] Resverlogix Corp[28] and Zenith epigenetics.[29] Notable BET inhibitors include:

Targeting both BD1 and BD2 (bromodomains)

  • JQ1 – commonly used in research studies and distributed free of charge by the James Bradner laboratory at the Dana Farber Cancer Institute[30]
  • I-BET 151 (GSK1210151A) – widely used in research applications[31]
  • I-BET 762 (GSK525762) – in clinical trials evaluating safety and efficacy in patients with NUT midline carcinoma and hematologic malignancies[32]
  • OTX-015 – phase I trials results in patients with hematologic malignancies are available.[33] Clinical trial testing conditions in patients with hematologic malignancies, solid tumors, glioblastoma multiforme, and NUT midline carcinoma
  • TEN-010 – created by Tensha therapeutics[34]
  • CPI-203 – shown to be effective in multiple myeloma when given in combination with lenalidomide.[35]
  • CPI-0610 – currently being evaluated in phase I clinical trials for lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and other hematologic cancers.[36]

Selective targeting of BD1

Dual kinase-bromodomain inhibitors

See also

References

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  3. ^ JP 2008156311 
  4. ^ JP H0228181 
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  14. ^ Mertz JA, Conery AR, Bryant BM, Sandy P, Balasubramanian S, Mele DA, Bergeron L, Sims RJ (October 2011). "Targeting MYC dependence in cancer by inhibiting BET bromodomains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (40): 16669–74. doi:10.1073/pnas.1108190108. PMC 3189078. PMID 21949397.
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  16. ^ Stonestrom AJ, Hsu SC, Jahn KS, Huang P, Keller CA, Giardine BM, Kadauke S, Campbell AE, Evans P, Hardison RC, Blobel GA (April 2015). "Functions of BET proteins in erythroid gene expression". Blood. 125 (18): 2825–34. doi:10.1182/blood-2014-10-607309. PMC 4424630. PMID 25696920.
  17. ^ Korkut A, Wang W, Demir E, Aksoy BA, Jing X, Molinelli EJ, Babur Ö, Bemis DL, Onur Sumer S, Solit DB, Pratilas CA, Sander C (August 2015). "Perturbation biology nominates upstream-downstream drug combinations in RAF inhibitor resistant melanoma cells". eLife. 4. doi:10.7554/elife.04640. PMC 4539601. PMID 26284497.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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  19. ^ Bandukwala HS, Gagnon J, Togher S, Greenbaum JA, Lamperti ED, Parr NJ, Molesworth AM, Smithers N, Lee K, Witherington J, Tough DF, Prinjha RK, Peters B, Rao A (September 2012). "Selective inhibition of CD4+ T-cell cytokine production and autoimmunity by BET protein and c-Myc inhibitors". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (36): 14532–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.1212264109. PMC 3437860. PMID 22912406.
  20. ^ Mele DA, Salmeron A, Ghosh S, Huang HR, Bryant BM, Lora JM (October 2013). "BET bromodomain inhibition suppresses TH17-mediated pathology". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 210 (11): 2181–90. doi:10.1084/jem.20130376. PMC 3804955. PMID 24101376.
  21. ^ "New Target in Heart Failure | HMS". Hms.harvard.edu. 2013-08-02. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  22. ^ "New Designer Compound Treats Heart Failure by Targeting Cell Nucleus | Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine". Casemed.case.edu. 2013-08-01. Archived from the original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 2015-04-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Matzuk MM, McKeown MR, Filippakopoulos P, Li Q, Ma L, Agno JE, Lemieux ME, Picaud S, Yu RN, Qi J, Knapp S, Bradner JE (August 2012). "Small-molecule inhibition of BRDT for male contraception". Cell. 150 (4): 673–84. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.06.045. PMC 3420011. PMID 22901802.
  24. ^ "Male Birth Control Possible? JQ1 Compound Decreases Mice's Sperm Count, Quality". Huffingtonpost.com. 2012-08-16. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  25. ^ "Merck Acquires OncoEthix, a Privately Held Oncology Company Developing Novel BET Inhibitors for Hematological and Solid Cancers | Merck Newsroom Home". Mercknewsroom.com. 2014-12-18. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  26. ^ "Site". Oncoethix. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  27. ^ "Stellar Science, Breakthrough Medicine – Constellation Pharmaceuticals". Constellationpharma.com. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  28. ^ "Home - Resverlogix Corp". Resverlogix.com. Retrieved 2015-05-05.
  29. ^ McLure, Kevin G. (July 2014). "Developing Best in Class BET Inhibitors for Oncology & AI: from Discovery to the Clinic" (PDF). EpiCongress. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ "Bradner Lab – Probes". Bradner.dfci.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  31. ^ Di Costanzo A, Del Gaudio N, Migliaccio A, Altucci L (September 2014). "Epigenetic drugs against cancer: an evolving landscape". Archives of Toxicology. 88 (9): 1651–68. doi:10.1007/s00204-014-1315-6. PMID 25085708.
  32. ^ GSK525762 clinical studies
  33. ^ Herait, P; Dombret, H; Thieblemont, C; Facon, T; Stathis, A; Cunningham, D; Palumbo, A; Vey, N; Michallet, M; Recher, C; Rezai, K; Preudhomme, C (2015). "O7.3BET-bromodomain (BRD) inhibitor OTX015: Final results of the dose-finding part of a phase I study in hematologic malignancies". Annals of Oncology. 26 Suppl 2: ii10. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdv085.3. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ "Small molecule selective bromodomain inhibitors for treating cancer and other diseases". Tensha Therapeutics. Retrieved 2015-04-12.
  35. ^ Moros A, Rodríguez V, Saborit-Villarroya I, Montraveta A, Balsas P, Sandy P, Martínez A, Wiestner A, Normant E, Campo E, Pérez-Galán P, Colomer D, Roué G (October 2014). "Synergistic antitumor activity of lenalidomide with the BET bromodomain inhibitor CPI203 in bortezomib-resistant mantle cell lymphoma". Leukemia. 28 (10): 2049–59. doi:10.1038/leu.2014.106. PMID 24721791. Archived from the original on 18 April 2015.
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  37. ^ Ntranos, Achilles; Casaccia, Patrizia (2016). "Bromodomains: Translating the words of lysine acetylation into myelin injury and repair". Neuroscience Letters. 625: 4–10. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2015.10.015. PMC 4841751. PMID 26472704.
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  40. ^ Ciceri P, Müller S, O'Mahony A, Fedorov O, Filippakopoulos P, Hunt JP, Lasater EA, Pallares G, Picaud S, Wells C, Martin S, Wodicka LM, Shah NP, Treiber DK, Knapp S (April 2014). "Dual kinase-bromodomain inhibitors for rationally designed polypharmacology". Nature Chemical Biology. 10 (4): 305–12. doi:10.1038/nchembio.1471. PMC 3998711. PMID 24584101.
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