View source for Chilean War of Independence

{{Short description|1810–26 war between Chile and Spain}}
{{Redirect|Battle of Chile|the film by Patricio Guzman|The Battle of Chile{{!}}''The Battle of Chile''}}
{{More footnotes|date=October 2009}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Chilean War of Independence
| width             = 
| partof            = the [[Spanish American wars of independence]]
| image             = {{Photo montage
| photo1a           = 
| photo2a           = Últimos momentos de Rancagua - Subercaseaux.jpg 
| photo2b           = BatallaDeMaipu.jpg 
| photo3a           = Captura-de-Chiloé.jpg 
| photo3b           = Tomadevaldivia.JPG
| size              = 300
| spacing           = 
| color             = 
| border            = 
| color_border      = 
| text              = Clockwise from top left:
{{flatlist|
* The [[Battle of Rancagua]] (1–2 October 1814)
* The [[Battle of Maipú]] (5 April 1818)
* The [[Capture of Valdivia]] (3–4 February 1820)
* The [[Battle of San Carlos Bay Pass]] (11 January 1826)
}}
| text_background   = 
| foot_montage      = 
}}
| image_size        = 
| alt               = 
| caption           = 
| date              = 1812–1827
| place             = The [[Captaincy General of Chile]], [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]], the governorates of [[Valdivia#Independence and growth (1810–1959)|Valdivia]], [[Osorno, Chile|Osorno]] and [[Governorate of Chiloé|Chiloé]], [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]] of America and [[Neuquén Basin]]
| result            = Patriots victory
| territory         = * ''[[De facto]]'' Chile's independence from the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish Crown]]
* Chilean annexation of [[Valdivia#Independence and growth (1810–1959)|Valdivia]] and [[Osorno, Chile|Osorno]] in 1820, and [[Chiloé Archipelago|Chiloé]] in 1826
| combatant1        = '''[[Patriot Governments (Spanish American independence)|Patriots]]:'''<br>
* {{flagdeco|Chile|1812}} [[Chile]]<br>{{small|([[Patria Vieja]], until 1814)}} 
* {{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Chile]]<br>{{small|([[Patria Nueva]], since 1817)}}
* {{flagicon|Argentina|1818}} [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]]
----
[[Mapuche]] allies:
* Abajinos
* [[Pehuenche]]s
| combatant2        = '''[[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|Royalists]]:'''
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Spanish Empire]] 
** {{flagicon image|Lesser_Coat_of_arms_of_Spain_%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29-Version_of_the_Flag.svg}} [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]
** {{flagicon image|Lesser_Coat_of_arms_of_Spain_%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29-Version_of_the_Flag.svg}} [[Captaincy General of Chile]]
** {{flagicon image|Lesser_Coat_of_arms_of_Spain_%281785-1873_and_1875-1931%29-Version_of_the_Flag.svg}} [[Governorate of Chiloé]]
----
Mapuche allies:
* Arribanos
* Boroanos
* Pehuenches
* Costinos
* [[Huilliche people|Huilliches]]
| commander1        = {{plainlist |
*{{flagdeco|Chile|1812}}{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[José Miguel Carrera|J. M. Carrera]]
*{{flagdeco|Chile|1812}}{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Bernardo O'Higgins|B. O'Higgins]]
*{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Ramón Freire]]
*{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Manuel Blanco Encalada|M. Blanco Encalada]]
*{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Thomas Cochrane]]
*{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Joaquín Prieto]]
*{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[José Manuel Borgoño|José M. Borgoño]]
*{{flagdeco|Argentina|1818}} [[José de San Martín]]
*{{flagdeco|Argentina|1818}} [[Antonio González de Balcarce|Antonio G. Balcarce]]
*{{flagdeco|Argentina|1818}} [[Juan Gregorio de las Heras|Juan G. de las Heras]]
}}
| commander2        = {{plainlist |
*{{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Antonio Pareja]]{{KIA|Typhus}}
*{{flagdeco|Spain|1785}} [[Juan Francisco Sánchez|Juan F. Sánchez]]
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Gabino Gaínza]]
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Mariano Osorio]]
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Francisco Marcó del Pont|F. M. del Pont]]{{POW}}
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Rafael Maroto]]
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[:es:José Ordóñez|José Ordóñez]]{{POW}}
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Vicente Benavides]]{{executed}}
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Juan Manuel Pico|Juan M. Pico]]{{executed}}
*{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Antonio de Quintanilla|A. de Quintanilla]]{{surrendered}}
}}
| strength1         = {{flagdeco|Chile|1812}}{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Chilean Army]]<br>{{flagicon|Chile|1818a}} [[Chilean Navy]] and [[Insurgent privateers|privateer]]s<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Army of the Andes.svg}} [[Army of the Andes]]<br>[[Mapuche military|Mapuche warriors]]
| strength2         = {{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)#Royalist army|Royalist Army]]<br>{{flagicon|Spain|1785}} [[Spanish Navy]] and [[privateer]]s<br>Mapuche warriors
| casualties1       = Unknown
| casualties2       = Unknown
}}
{{Campaignbox Chilean War of Independence}}
{{Spanish colonial campaigns}}
The '''Chilean War of Independence''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Guerra de la Independencia de Chile'', 'War of Independence of Chile') was a military and political event that allowed the [[emancipation]] of [[Chile]] from the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish Monarchy]], ending the [[Colonial Chile|colonial period]] and initiating the formation of an independent republic.

It developed in the context of the [[Spanish American Wars of independence]], a military and political process that began after the formation of [[Junta (Spanish American Independence)|self-government juntas]] in the Spanish-American colonies, in response to the capture of King [[Ferdinand VII of Spain]] by Napoleonic forces in 1808. The [[Government Junta of Chile (1810)|First Government Junta of Chile]] was formed for that purpose. But then, it began to gradually radicalize, which caused a military struggle between [[Patriot Governments (Spanish American independence)|Patriots]], who were looking for a definitive separation from the Spanish Crown; and [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|Royalists]], who sought to maintain unity with her. 

Traditionally, Chilean historiography covers this period between the establishment of the First Government Junta of Chile (September 18, 1810) and the resignation of [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] as [[Supreme Director of Chile]] (January 28, 1823). It is also subdivided into three stages: the ''[[Patria Vieja]]'' (1810–1814), ''[[Reconquista (Chile)|Reconquista]]'' (1814–1817) and the ''[[Patria Nueva (Chile)|Patria Nueva]]'' (1817–1823). Although the war itself began in 1812, the year in which the first hostile actions took place, and lasted until the end of the 1820s, when the last royalists forces were defeated in the [[Chiloé Archipelago]] in 1826 and in [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] in 1827.

A [[Chilean Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]] was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844, when full diplomatic relations were established.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Chile.html |title=Chile |publisher=World Statesmen |access-date=31 March 2012}}</ref>

== Background ==

At the start of 1808, the [[Captaincy General of Chile]]—one of the smallest and poorest colonies in the [[Spanish Empire]]—was under the administration of [[Luis Muñoz de Guzmán]], an able, respected and well-liked [[Royal Governor of Chile|Royal Governor]]. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles  and the start of the [[Peninsular War]] plunged the empire into a state of agitation. In the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion. After a brief interim regency by [[Royal Governor of Chile#Appointed by Ferdinand VII|Juan Rodríguez Ballesteros]], and according to the succession law in place at the time, the position was laid claim to and assumed by the most senior military commander, who happened to be Brigadier [[Francisco Antonio García Carrasco|Francisco García Carrasco]].

García Carrasco took over the post of [[Royal Governor of Chile|Governor of Chile]] in April and in August the news of the [[Napoleon]]ic invasion of [[Spain]] and of the conformation of a [[Junta (Peninsular War)|Supreme Central Junta]] to govern the Empire in the absence of a legitimate king reached the country. In the meantime, [[Charlotte of Spain|Charlotte Joaquina]], sister of Ferdinand and wife of the [[John VI of Portugal|King of Portugal]], who was living in [[Brazil]], also made attempts to obtain the administration of the Spanish dominions in [[Latin America]]. Since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy [[Buenos Aires]] and northern Argentina and to style herself as ''Queen of [[La Plata]]''.

Brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the [[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollo]] elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had been some independence agitation but minimal and concentrated in the very ineffectual [[Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios]] back in 1781. The majority of the people were fervent royalists but were divided into two groups: those who favored the ''status quo'' and the divine right of [[Ferdinand VII]] (known as ''absolutists'') and those who wanted to proclaim [[Charlotte of Spain|Charlotte Joaquina]] as Queen (known as ''carlotists''). A third group was composed of those who proposed the replacement of the Spanish authorities with a local ''[[wikt:junta|junta]]'' of notable citizens, which would conform a provisional government to rule in the absence of the king and an independent Spain (known as ''juntistas'').

[[File:Mateo de Toro y Zambrano.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1st Count of la Conquista|Mateo de Toro Zambrano]]]]

In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption (the [[Scorpion scandal]]) that managed to destroy whatever remnants of [[moral authority]] he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build. In June 1810 news arrived from [[Buenos Aires]] that [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte's]] forces had conquered [[Andalusia]] and laid [[Siege of Cádiz|siege to Cádiz]], the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the [[Junta (Peninsular War)|Supreme Central Junta]], which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council. García Carrasco, who was a supporter of the ''carlotist'' group, managed to magnify the political problems by taking arbitrary and harsh measures, such as the arrest and deportation to [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] without due process of well-known and socially prominent citizens under simple suspicions of having been sympathetic to the ''junta'' idea. Among those arrested were [[Conspiracy of the Tres Antonios#Events|José Antonio de Rojas]], [[Juan Antonio Ovalle]] and [[Bernardo de Vera|Bernardo de Vera y Pintado]].

Inspired by the [[May Revolution]] in Argentina, the autonomy movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, finally solidified in their opposition to the Governor. Brigadier García Carrasco was suspended from office and forced to resign on July 16, 1810, to be in turn replaced by the next most senior soldier, [[Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1st Count of la Conquista|Mateo de Toro Zambrano]] [[Count of la Conquista]], even though a legitimate Governor, [[Francisco Javier de Elío]], had already been appointed by the [[Viceroy of Peru]].

Count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was a very old man already (82 years old at the time) and moreover a [[Spanish Criollo peoples|"criollo"]] (someone born in the colonies) as opposed to a "peninsular" (someone born in Spain). Immediately after his appointment in July, the ''juntistas'' began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court ({{langx|es|Real Audiencia}}) took a public loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience, which put added pressure on the Governor to define himself. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open [[Cabildo (council)|''Cabildo'']] (city hall) meeting in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] to discuss the issue. The date was set for September 18, 1810 at 11 am.

== Patria Vieja ==
{{History of Chile}}
{{main|Patria Vieja}}

===First Junta===
[[File:FirstJuntaChile.jpg|thumb|left|Opening session of the [[Government Junta of Chile (1810)|First Junta]]]]
From the very beginning, the ''juntistas'' took the political initiative. As soon as the Cabildo was called, they were able to place their members in the committee charged with sending the invitations, thus manipulating the attendance lists to their own advantage. At the September 18 session, they grabbed center stage with shouts of ''"¡Junta queremos! ¡junta queremos!"'' ("We want a junta! We want a junta!"). Count Toro Zambrano, faced with this very public show of force, acceded to their demands by depositing his ceremonial baton on top of the main table and saying "Here is the baton, take it and rule."

The [[Government Junta of Chile (1810)|Government Junta of the Kingdom of Chile]], also known as the ''First Junta'', was organized with the same powers as a [[Royal Governor of Chile|Royal Governor]]. Their first measure was to take a loyalty oath to [[Ferdinand VII]] as legitimate King. Count Toro Zambrano was elected President, and the rest of the positions were distributed equally among all parties, but the real power was left in the hands of the secretary, [[Juan Martínez de Rozas]]. The Junta then proceeded to take some concrete measures that had been long-held aspirations of the colonials: it created a militia for the defense of the kingdom, decreed freedom of trade with all nations that were allied to Spain or neutrals, a unique tariff of 134% for all imports (with the exception of printing presses, books and guns which were liberated from all taxes) and in order to increase its representativity, ordered the convocatory of a National Congress. Immediately, political intrigue began amongst the ruling elite, with news of the [[Peninsular War|political turbulence and wars of Europe]] all the while coming in. It was eventually decided that elections for the National Congress, to be composed of 42 representatives, would be held in 1811.

[[File:Juan Martínez de Rozas.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Juan Martínez de Rozas]]

Three political factions started to coalesce: the ''Extremists'' ({{langx|es|exaltados}}), the ''Moderates'' ({{langx|es|moderados}}) and the [[Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)|''Royalists'']] ({{langx|es|realistas}}). These groups were all decidedly against independence from [[Spain]] and differentiated themselves only in the degree of political autonomy that they sought. The Moderates, under the leadership of [[José Miguel Infante]], were a majority, and wanted a very slow pace of reforms since they were afraid that once the King was back in power he would think that they were seeking independence and would roll-back all changes. The Extremists were the second most important group and they advocated a larger degree of freedom from the Crown and a faster pace of reforms stopping just short of full independence. Their leader was Juan Martínez de Rozas. The Royalists were against any reform at all and for the maintenance of the status quo.

By March 1811, 36 representatives had already been elected in all major cities with the exception of [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]] and [[Valparaíso]]. The great political surprise up to that point had been the results from the other center of power, [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], in which Royalists had defeated the supporters of [[Juan Martinez de Rozas|Juan Martínez de Rozas]]. In the rest of Chile, the results were more or less equally divided: twelve pro-Rozas delegates, fourteen anti-Rozas and three Royalists. So, the Santiago elections were the key to Rozas' desire to remain in power. This election was supposed to take place on April 10, but before they could be called the [[Figueroa mutiny]] broke out.

On April 1, Royalist colonel [[Tomás de Figueroa]]—considering the notion of elections to be too populist—led a revolt in Santiago. The revolt sputtered, and Figueroa was arrested and summarily executed. The mutiny was successful in that temporarily sabotaged the elections, which had to be delayed. Eventually, however, a [[National Congress of Chile|National Congress]] was duly elected, and all 6 deputies from Santiago came from the Moderate camp. Nonetheless, the mutiny also encouraged a radicalization of political postures. Although Moderates—who continued advocating political control of the elites and greater autonomy without a complete rupture from Spain—gained the majority of seats, a vocal minority was formed by Extremist revolutionaries who now wanted complete and instant independence from Spain. The [[Royal Audiencia of Santiago|Real Audiencia of Chile]], a long-standing pillar of Spanish rule, was dissolved for its alleged "complicity" with the mutiny. The idea of full independence gained momentum for the first time.

===Carrera dictatorship===
[[File:Jose Miguel Carrera.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[José Miguel Carrera]]]]
During this time, a well-connected young man and a veteran of the [[Peninsular War]], [[José Miguel Carrera]], returned to Chile from Spain. Quickly, he was involved with the intrigues of various Extremists who plotted to wrest power from Martínez de Rozas through armed means. After two coups, both in the end of 1811, the ambitious Carrera managed to take power, inaugurating a dictatorship. Prominent members of the government were Carrera's brothers [[Juan José Carrera|Juan José]] and [[Luis Carrera|Luis]], as well as [[Bernardo O'Higgins]].

Meanwhile, a provisional Constitution of 1812 was promulgated with a marked liberal character. An example of this is the stipulation that "no order that emanates from outside the territory of Chile will have any effect, and anyone who tries to enforce such an order will be treated as a traitor." Carrera also created patriotic emblems for the ''Patria Vieja'' such as the flag, shield, and insignia. Also during his government, the first Chilean newspaper, the ''[[La Aurora de Chile]]'' was published under the editorship of Friar [[Camilo Henríquez]]. It supported the independence movement. Additionally, Carrera was responsible for bringing the first [[United States|American]] consul to Chile. This was important, as it established a direct link between the liberalism and [[federalism]] of the United States with the principles of the Chilean independence movement. Finally, he founded the [[Instituto Nacional de Chile]] and the [[National Library of Chile]]. Both of these prestigious institutions have survived to the present day.

===Spanish invasions===
[[File:BernardoO'higgins.JPG|right|thumb|150px|[[Bernardo O'Higgins]]]]
The triumph of rebellions—both in Chile and Argentina—disquieted the [[Viceroy of Peru]], [[José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa|José Fernando de Abascal]]. As a result, in 1813, he sent a military expedition by sea under the command of [[Antonio Pareja]] to deal with the situation in Chile, and sent another force by land to attack northern Argentina.  The troops landed in [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]], where they were received with applause. Pareja then attempted to take Santiago. This effort failed, as did a subsequent inconclusive assault led by [[Gabino Gaínza]]. However, this was not due to the military performance of Carrera, whose incompetence led to the rise of the moderate O'Higgins, who eventually took supreme control of the pro-independence forces. Harassed on all sides, Carrera resigned, in what is commonly taken to mark the beginning of the period of the ''[[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Reconquista]]''.

After the attempt by Gaínza, the two sides had signed the [[Treaty of Lircay]] on May 14, nominally bringing peace but effectively only providing a breathing space.  Abascal had no intention of honoring the treaty, and that very year sent a much more decisive force southwards, under the command of [[Mariano Osorio]]. The royalist force landed and moved to [[Chillán]], demanding complete surrender. O'Higgins wanted to defend the city of [[Rancagua]], while Carrera wanted to make the stand at the pass of Angostura, a more felicitous defensive position but also closer to Santiago. Because of the disagreements and resulting lack of coordination, the independence forces were divided, and O'Higgins was obliged to meet the royalists at Rancagua without reinforcements. The resulting battle, the [[Disaster of Rancagua]], on October 1 and 2 of 1814, was fought fiercely, but ended in stunning defeat for the independence forces of which only 500 of the original 5,000 survived. A little while later, Osorio entered Santiago and put the rebellion of the ''Patria Vieja'' to an end.

== Reconquista ==
{{see also|Reconquest (Chile)}}

[[File:CasimiroMarcoDelPont.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Francisco Casimiro Marcó del Pont]]]]

The viceroy Abascal confirmed Mariano Osorio as governor of Chile, although a later disagreement between the two would result in Osorio's removal and the installation of [[Francisco Casimiro Marcó del Pont]] as governor in 1815. In any case, the Spanish believed that it was necessary to teach the revolutionaries a good lesson and embarked on a campaign of fierce political persecution, led by the infamous [[Vicente San Bruno]]. The patriots found in Santiago—among whom were members of the [[Government Junta of Chile (1810)|First Junta]]—were exiled to the [[Juan Fernández Islands]]. Far from pacifying the patriots, these actions served to incite them, and soon even the most moderate concluded that anything short of independence was intolerable.

A large group of patriots (among them Carrera and O'Higgins) decided to flee to [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]], an Andean province of the newly independent [[Argentina]]. At the time, the governor of this province was [[José de San Martín]], a leader of the Argentine independence movement who would become regarded as the "[[Simón Bolívar]]" of the southern part of Spanish [[South America]]. Upon the arrival of the exiles, San Martín immediately began to favor O'Higgins (probably because of their shared membership in the [[Logia Lautaro]], a pro-independence secret society). Carrera's influence begun to fade and ended finally when he was executed by firing squad in 1821.

[[File:MRodriguez.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Manuel Rodríguez]]

While San Martín and O'Higgins organized an army to recross the Andes and recapture Santiago, they charged the lawyer [[Manuel Rodríguez Erdoiza|Manuel Rodríguez]] with the task of mounting a guerrilla campaign. The goals of the campaign were to keep the Spanish forces off balance, ridicule San Bruno, and generally bolster the morale of the patriots. Through his subsequent daring exploits, Rodríguez became a romantic hero of the revolution. In one of his more celebrated actions, he disguised himself as a beggar and succeeded in obtaining alms from Governor Marcó del Pont himself, who by that time had put a price on Rodríguez's head.

The liberating [[Army of the Andes]] was prepared by 1817. After a [[Crossing of the Andes|difficult crossing the Andes]], royalist forces led by [[Rafael Maroto]] were encountered on the plain of Chacabuco, to the north of Santiago. The resulting [[Battle of Chacabuco]], on February 12, 1817, was a decisive victory for the independence forces. As a result, the patriots re-entered Santiago. San Martín was proclaimed Supreme Director, but he declined the offer and put O'Higgins in the post, where he would remain until 1823. On the first anniversary of the Battle of Chacabuco, O'Higgins formally declared independence.

== Patria Nueva ==
{{see also|First Chilean Navy Squadron}}
[[File:Ohiggins.jpg|thumb|left|Bernardo O’Higgins, 'libertador' of Chile]]

During the preceding time, [[Joaquín de la Pezuela]] was installed as a new viceroy in Peru. He resolved to recall his son-in-law, [[Mariano Osorio]], sending him south with another expeditionary force. The troops disembarked at Concepcion, and recruited a number of Amerindians to join their ranks. Meanwhile, Bernardo O'Higgins moved north to somehow stop the advance of the royalists. However, his forces were surprised and very badly beaten at the [[Second Battle of Cancha Rayada]] on March 18, 1818. In the confusion, a false rumor spread that San Martin and O'Higgins had died, and a panic seized the patriot troops, many of whom agitated for a full retreat back across the Andes to Mendoza. In these critical circumstances, the erstwhile Manuel Rodríguez jumped to the lead, haranguing and rallying the soldiers with the cry "''There's still a country, citizens!''" He named himself Supreme Director, a position which he would occupy for exactly 30 hours, which was the time the living, but wounded, O'Higgins took to return to Santiago and reclaim command.

Then, on April 5, 1818, San Martín inflicted a decisive defeat on Osorio the [[Battle of Maipú]], after which the depleted royalists retreated to Concepcion, never again to launch a major offensive against Santiago. Independence was all but secured, and worries about internal divisions were allayed when O'Higgins saluted San Martín as savior of the country, a moment which came to be known as the [[Embrace of Maipú]].

===Total war===
{{main|Guerra a muerte}}
To further secure Chilean independence, San Martín launched a series of actions against armed bands in the mountains, consisting of assorted outlaws, royalists, and Indians who had taken advantage of the chaos of military expeditions and forced recruitments to pillage and sack the countryside. This time of irregular warfare was later called the ''[[Guerra a muerte]]'' ([[No quarter|Total war]]) for its merciless tactics, as neither the guerillas nor the government soldiers took prisoners. Only after the band of [[Vicente Benavides]] was liquidated in 1822 was the region around Concepcion finally pacified.

===Incorporation of Valdivia and Chiloé===
[[File:Abdicación del Supremo Director Bernardo O'Higgins (pintura de 1875).jpg|thumb|right|Resignation of O'Higgins]]
As San Martín worked to establish internal stability, O'Higgins also looked to defend the country against further external threats by the Spanish and continue to roll back imperial control. He developed the Chilean navy as a line of defense against seaborne attacks, placing the [[Scotland|Scotsman]] [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Lord Cochrane]] in the post of admiral. In 1820, Cochrane administered a stunning blow to the remaining royalist forces in a [[capture of Valdivia|successful attack]] on a [[Valdivian fort system|complex of fortifications at Valdivia]]. Later Cochrane disembarked troops under commander [[William Miller (Peruvian general)|William Miller]] at northern [[Chiloé Island]] in order to conquer the last Spanish stronghold in Chile, the [[Archipelago of Chiloé]]. This failed attempt ended in the minor but significant [[Battle of Agüi]]. Later on, [[Georges Beauchef]] headed from Valdivia an expedition to secure [[Osorno, Chile|Osorno]] so that the Spanish would not reoccupy Valdivia from the land. Beauchef inflicted a decisive defeat on the royalists at the [[Battle of El Toro]].

In any case, San Martín and O'Higgins were in agreement that the danger would not be passed until the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] itself was independent from Spain. Thus, a fleet and army was prepared for an expedition to the country, and in 1820, San Martín and Cochrane set off for Peru. However, the audacious and daring character of Cochrane conflicted with the excessive prudence of San Martín. San Martín let escape a number of opportunities to land the decisive blow against the viceroy,{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} and in the end it was [[Simón Bolívar]] who launched the final offensive after coming down from [[Colombia]], Peruvian independence was secured after the [[Battle of Ayacucho]] on December 9, 1824, in which forces led by [[Antonio José de Sucre]]—a lieutenant of Bolívar—defeated the royalist army for good.

In Chilean [[historiography]], the ''Patria Nueva'' generally ends in 1823, with the resignation of O'Higgins. However, the last Spanish territory in Chile, the archipelago of [[Chiloé Archipelago|Chiloé]], was not conquered until 1826, during the government of [[Ramón Freire]], O'Higgins' successor.

== Economic impact ==
{{see also|Chilean wheat cycle|Chilean silver rush}}
The independence wars in Chile (1810–1818) and Peru (1809–1824) had a negative impact on the [[Chilean wheat cycle|Chilean wheat industry]]. Trade was disrupted and armies in Chile pillaged the countryside. The [[Guerra a muerte]] phase was particularly destructive and ended only to see a period of outlaw [[banditry]] (e.g. [[Pincheira brothers]]) occur until the late 1820s.<ref name=villalobosindep/> Trade with Peru did not fully recover after the independence struggles.<ref name=villalobosindep>{{in lang|es}} [[Sergio Villalobos|Villalobos, Sergio]]; [[Osvaldo Silva|Silva, Osvaldo]]; Silva, Fernando and Estelle, Patricio. 1974. ''Historia De Chile''. [[Editorial Universitaria]], Chile. pp. 406–413.</ref> Being isolated from Central Chile by hostile [[Araucanía (historic region)|Mapuche-controlled territory]] and dependent upon seaborne trade with the port of [[Callao]] in [[Peru]] the city of [[Valdivia]] was particularly badly hit by the decline of the trade with Peru. The fortune of this city would not shift until the [[German colonization of Valdivia, Osorno and Llanquihue|arrival of German settlers]] in the late 1840s.<ref name=Bernedo>{{Citation
| last  = Bernedo Pinto
| first = Patricio
| title = Los industriales alemanes de Valdivia, 1850–1914
| journal = [[Historia (history of the Americas journal)|Historia]]
| volume  = 32
| year    = 1999
| pages   = 5–42
| url     = http://www.memoriachilena.cl/archivos2/pdfs/MC0001325.pdf
}}</ref>

Much of the war effort was financed with silver from [[Agua Amarga]], a mining area south of [[Vallenar]] discovered in 1811.<ref name=Cortes2017p25>{{Cite book|title=Chañarcillo, cuando de las montañas brotó la plata|last=Cortés Lutz|first=Guillermo|publisher=[[Museo Regional de Atacama]]|series=Cuadernos de Historia |year=2017|volume=II|language=es|url=https://www.museodeatacama.gob.cl/sites/www.museodeatacama.gob.cl/files/images/articles-88574_archivo_01.pdf|edition=|page=25}}</ref> Chile adopted a [[free trade]] policy already in 1811 with the "Decreto de Libre Comercio".<ref name=salazar>{{in lang|es}} ''Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores.'' 2002. [[Gabriel Salazar]] and [[Julio Pinto]]. pp. 19–20.</ref> This allowed the country in the mid-19th century to exploit the opportunities that the [[California Gold Rush]] and the [[Australian gold rushes]] created for exporting wheat.<ref name=mem>{{in lang|es}} ''[http://www.memoriachilena.cl/temas/dest.asp?id=haciendaexportacion La Hacienda (1830–1930)]''. Memoria Chilena.</ref><ref name=villalobos>{{in lang|es}} [[Sergio Villalobos|Villalobos, Sergio]]; Silva, Osvaldo; Silva, Fernando and Estelle, Patricio. 1974. ''Historia De Chile''. [[Editorial Universitaria]], Chile. pp. 481–485.</ref>

In 1822 [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] government obtained a large loan in London to finance the independence struggle. The resulting [[Chilean independence debt]] took decades to regularize, ending the default in 1840s thanks to the efforts of the Ministers of Finance [[Manuel Rengifo]] and [[Joaquín Tocornal Jiménez|Joaquín Tocornal]] plus the favourable international markers for Chilean silver, copper and wheat.<ref name=memdeuda>{{Cite web
 | url   = http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-3514.html
 | title = La deuda pública externa de Chile (1810–2004)
 |trans-title=The external public debt of Chile (1810–2004)
 | website  = [[Memoria Chilena]]
 | publisher  = [[Biblioteca Nacional de Chile]]
 | language = es
 | archive-url = 
 | archive-date = 
 | access-date =May 18, 2022
}}</ref><ref name=perez2015>{{Cite book |title=Fiscalidad, integración social y política exterior en el pensamiento liberal atlántico (1810–1930) |last=Pérez Herrero |first=Pedro |year=2015 |isbn=978-84-9123-174-5 |pages=237–238 |language=Spanish |editor-last=Pérez Herrero |editor-first=Pedro |chapter=El orden portaliano (1830–1840) |publisher=Marcial Pons |editor-last2=Sanz |editor-first2=Eva}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spain|Latin America|Chile}}
{{Columns list|colwidth=20em|
* [[Argentine War of Independence]]
*[[Antonio de Quintanilla]]
*[[Antonio Pareja]]
*[[Antonio José de Sucre]]
*[[Bernardo O'Higgins]]
*[[Camilo Henríquez]]
*[[Charlotte of Spain|Charlotte Joaquina]]
*[[Francisco Antonio García Carrasco|Francisco García Carrasco]]
*[[Francisco Marcó del Pont]]
*[[Ferdinand VII]]
*[[Founding of Talca]]
*[[Gabino Gaínza]]
*[[Juan Albano Pereira Márquez]] 
*[[Georges Beauchef]]
*[[Logia Lautaro]]
*[[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Lord Thomas Cochrane]]
*[[Manuel Rodríguez Erdoiza|Manuel Rodríguez]]
*[[Mariano Osorio]]
*[[Mateo de Toro Zambrano, 1st Count of la Conquista|Mateo de Toro Zambrano]]
*[[Joaquín de la Pezuela]]
*[[Luisa Recabárren de Marin]]
*[[José de San Martín]]
*[[José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa|José Fernando de Abascal]]
*[[José Miguel Carrera]]
*[[José Miguel Infante]]
*[[Juan Martínez de Rozas]]
*[[Ramón Freire]]
*[[Rafael Maroto]]
*[[Simón Bolívar]]
*[[Vicente Benavides]]
*[[Vicente San Bruno]]
*[[William Miller (Peruvian general)|William Miller]]
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Wikisourcepar|es:Independencia de Chile|Independence of Chile (Spanish Texts)}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Barros Arana |first=Diego |author-link=Diego Barros Arana |title=Estudios históricos sobre Vicente Benavides i las campañas del Sur: 1818–1822 |url=http://www.memoriachilena.cl//temas/documento_detalle.asp?id=MC0017455  |year=1850 |publisher=Imprenta de Julio Belin i Compañia |location=Santiago|language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Barros Arana |first=Diego |author-link=Diego Barros Arana |title=Historia Jeneral de la Independencia de Chile |volume=I–IV |year=1855 |publisher=Imprenta del Ferrocarril |location=Santiago |language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Barros Arana |first=Diego |author-link=Diego Barros Arana |title=Historia Jeneral de Chile |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lSsOAAAAQAAJ |volume=I–XVI |year=1884–1902 |publisher=Rafael Jover |location=Santiago |isbn=978-0598482358 |language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Castedo |first=Leopoldo |title=Resumen de la Historia de Chile de Francisco Antonio Encina |volume=2 |year=1954 |publisher=Empresa Editora Zig-Zag |location=Santiago |language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Encina |first=Francisco Antonio |author-link=Francisco Antonio Encina |title=Historia de Chile: desde la prehistoria hasta 1891 |volume=I–XX |year=1940–1952 |publisher=Editorial Nascimento |location=Santiago |language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Claudio |author-link=Claudio Gay |title=Historia de la Independencia Chilena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9pEOAAAAQAAJ |volume=I & II |year=1856 |publisher=Imprenta de E. Thunot y Cia. |location=Paris |language=es }}
* Harvey, Robert. "Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830". John Murray: London (2000). {{ISBN|0-7195-5566-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Herring |first=Hubert |title=A History of Latin America |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoflatinam00herr |url-access=registration |year=1968 |publisher=Alfred A Knopf |location=New York }}
*{{cite book |last=Prago |first=Albert |title=The Revolutions in Spanish America |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionsinspa00prag |url-access=registration |year=1970 |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York }}
*{{cite book |last=Vicuña Mackenna |first=Benjamín |author-link=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |title=El sitio de Chillán |year=1849 |publisher=Periodico La Tribuna |location=Santiago |language=es }}
*{{cite book |last=Vicuña Mackenna |first=Benjamín |author-link=Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna |title=La guerra a muerte: memoria sobre las últimas campañas de la Independencia de Chile (1819–1824) |year=1868 |publisher=Imprenta Nacional |location=Santiago |language=es |pages=562 }}
{{refend}}

{{Chile topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Chilean War of Independence| ]]
[[Category:Spanish American wars of independence]]
[[Category:Wars involving Chile|Independence]]
[[Category:Wars involving Spain]]
[[Category:1810s in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:1820s in Chile]]
[[Category:1810 in the Captaincy General of Chile]]
[[Category:1821 in Chile]]
[[Category:1826 in Chile]]
[[Category:1810 in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:1821 in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:1826 in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:1810s in the Spanish Empire]]
[[Category:1820s in the Spanish Empire]]