Jump to content

Coastal flooding

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Coastal Flooding)
Coastal flooding during Hurricane Lili in 2002 on Louisiana Highway 1 (United States)

Coastal flooding occurs when dry and low-lying land is submerged (flooded) by seawater.[1] The range of a coastal flooding is a result of the elevation of floodwater that penetrates the inland which is controlled by the topography of the coastal land exposed to flooding.[1][2] The seawater can flood the land via several different paths: direct flooding, overtopping or breaching of a barrier.[3] Coastal flooding is largely a natural event. Due to the effects of climate change (e.g. sea level rise and an increase in extreme weather events) and an increase in the population living in coastal areas, the damage caused by coastal flood events has intensified and more people are being affected.[4]

Coastal areas are sometimes flooded by unusually high tides, such as spring tides, especially when compounded by high winds and storm surges. This was the cause of the North Sea flood of 1953 which flooded large swathes of the Netherlands and the East coast of England.

When humans modify the coastal environment this can make coastal flooding worse.[1][5][6][7] Extraction of water from groundwater reservoirs in the coastal zone can instigate subsidence of the land, thus increasing the risk of flooding.[5] Engineered protection structures along the coast, such as sea walls, alter the natural processes of the beach. This can lead to erosion on adjacent stretches of the coast which also increases the risk of flooding.[1][7][8]

Reduction and control of coastal flooding is carried out using structural methods to hold back or redirect flood waters. Non-structural methods include coastal management, behavioral and institutional response to adapt to the processes. Natural defenses include physical features like gravel bars and sand dune systems, but also ecosystems such as salt marshes, seagrass and mangrove forests which have a buffering function. Mangroves, wetlands and seagrass meadows are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis, and shoreline erosion through their ability to attenuate wave energy.[6][9][10] To protect the coastal zone from flooding, the natural defenses should, therefore, be protected and maintained in for example Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).[11]

Types

[edit]
High tide flooding, also called tidal flooding, is one of the causes for coastal flooding. It has become much more common in the past seven decades.[12]

The seawater can flood the land via several different paths:

  • Direct flooding — where the sea height exceeds the elevation of the land, often where waves have not built up a natural barrier such as a dune
  • Overtopping of a barrier — the barrier may be natural or human-engineered and overtopping occurs due to swelling conditions during storms or high tides often on open stretches of the coast.[3] The height of the waves exceeds the height of the barrier and water flows over the top of the barrier to flood the land behind it. Overtopping can result in high velocity flows that can erode significant amounts of the land surface which can undermine defense structures.[13]
  • Breaching of a barrier — again the barrier may be natural (sand dune) or human-engineered (sea wall), and breaching occurs on open coasts exposed to large waves. Breaching occurs when the barrier is broken down or destroyed by waves allowing the seawater to extend inland and flood the areas

Causes

[edit]

Coastal flooding can result from a variety of different causes including storm surges created by storms like hurricanes and tropical cyclones, rising sea levels due to climate change and tsunamis.

Storm surge from Hurricane Carol in 1954

Storms and storm surges

[edit]

Storms, including hurricanes and tropical cyclones, can cause flooding through storm surges which are waves significantly larger than normal.[1][14] If a storm event coincides with the high astronomical tide, extensive flooding can occur.[15] Storm surges involve three processes:

  1. wind setup
  2. barometric setup
  3. wave setup

Wind blowing in an onshore direction (from the sea towards the land) can cause the water to 'pile-up' against the coast; this is known as wind setup. Low atmospheric pressure is associated with storm systems and this tends to increase the surface sea level; this is a barometric setup. Finally increased wave breaking height results in a higher water level in the surf zone, which is wave setup. These three processes interact to create waves that can overtop natural and engineered coastal protection structures thus penetrating seawater further inland than normal.[15][16]

Sea level rise

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Sea level rise.[edit]

Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[17]: 1216  This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[17]: 1216  The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[18] Climate change due to human activities is the main cause.[19]: 5, 8  Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water.[20]: 1576 

Sea level rise lags behind changes in the Earth's temperature by many decades, and sea level rise will therefore continue to accelerate between now and 2050 in response to warming that has already happened.[21] What happens after that depends on human greenhouse gas emissions. If there are very deep cuts in emissions, sea level rise would slow between 2050 and 2100. It could then reach by 2100 slightly over 30 cm (1 ft) from now and approximately 60 cm (2 ft) from the 19th century. With high emissions it would instead accelerate further, and could rise by 1.0 m (3+1⁄3 ft) or even 1.6 m (5+1⁄3 ft) by 2100.[19][17]: 1302  In the long run, sea level rise would amount to 2–3 m (7–10 ft) over the next 2000 years if warming stays to its current 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) over the pre-industrial past. It would be 19–22 metres (62–72 ft) if warming peaks at 5 °C (9.0 °F).[19]: 21 

Tidal flooding

[edit]
Tidal flooding on a sunny day, during the "king tides" in Brickell, Miami in 2016
The last remaining house on Holland Island that collapsed and was torn down in the 2010s as erosion and tides reached the foundation.
This section is an excerpt from Tidal flooding.[edit]

Tidal flooding, also known as sunny day flooding[22] or nuisance flooding,[23] is the temporary inundation of low-lying areas, especially streets, during exceptionally high tide events, such as at full and new moons. The highest tides of the year may be known as the king tide, with the month varying by location. These kinds of floods tend not to be a high risk to property or human safety, but further stress coastal infrastructure in low lying areas.[24]

This kind of flooding is becoming more common in cities and other human-occupied coastal areas as sea level rise associated with climate change and other human-related environmental impacts such as coastal erosion and land subsidence increase the vulnerability of infrastructure.[25] Geographies faced with these issues can utilize coastal management practices to mitigate the effects in some areas, but increasingly these kinds of floods may develop into coastal flooding that requires managed retreat or other more extensive climate change adaptation practices are needed for vulnerable areas.

Tsunami waves

[edit]

Coastal areas can be significantly flooded as the result of tsunami waves[26] which propagate through the ocean as the result of the displacement of a significant body of water through earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and glacier calvings. There is also evidence to suggest that significant tsunami have been caused in the past by meteor impact into the ocean.[27] Tsunami waves are so destructive due to the velocity of the approaching waves, the height of the waves when they reach land, and the debris the water entrains as it flows over land can cause further damage.[26][9]

Depending on the magnitude of the tsunami waves and floods, it could cause severe injuries which call for precautionary interventions that prevent overwhelming aftermaths. It was reported that more than 200,000 people were killed in the earthquake and subsequent tsunami that hit the Indian Ocean, on December 26, 2004.[28] Not to mention, several diseases are a result of floods ranging from hypertension to chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.[28]

Impacts

[edit]
See also: Flood § Negative impacts

Social and economic impacts

[edit]

The coastal zone (the area both within 100 kilometres distance of the coast and 100 metres elevation of sea level) is home to a large and growing proportion of the global population.[5][7] Over 50 percent of the global population and 65 percent of cities with populations over five million people are in the coastal zone.[29] In addition to the significant number of people at risk of coastal flooding, these coastal urban centres are producing a considerable amount of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP).[7]

People's lives, homes, businesses, and city infrastructure like roads, railways, and industrial plants are all at risk of coastal flooding with massive potential social and economic costs.[30][31][32] The recent earthquakes and tsunami in Indonesia in 2004 and in Japan in March 2011 clearly illustrate the devastation coastal flooding can produce. Indirect economic costs can be incurred if economically important sandy beaches are eroded resulting in a loss of tourism in areas dependent on the attractiveness of those beaches.[33]

Environmental impacts

[edit]

Coastal flooding can result in a wide variety of environmental impacts on different spatial and temporal scales. Flooding can destroy coastal habitats such as coastal wetlands and estuaries and can erode dune systems.[13][5][33][29] These places are characterized by their high biological diversity therefore coastal flooding can cause significant biodiversity loss and potentially species extinctions.[26] In addition to this, these coastal features are the coasts natural buffering system against storm waves; consistent coastal flooding and sea-level rise can cause this natural protection to be reduced allowing waves to penetrate greater distances inland exacerbating erosion and furthering coastal flooding.[5] "By 2050, “moderate” (typically damaging) flooding is expected to occur, on average, more than 10 times as often as it does today, and can be intensified by local factors."[34]

Prolonged inundation of seawater after flooding can also cause salination of agriculturally productive soils thus resulting in a loss of productivity for long periods of time.[1][33] Food crops and forests can be completely killed off by salination of soils or wiped out by the movement of floodwaters.[5] Coastal freshwater bodies including lakes, lagoons, and coastal freshwater aquifers can also be affected by saltwater intrusion.[13][5][29] This can destroy these water bodies as habitats for freshwater organisms and sources of drinking water for towns and cities.[5][29]

Reduction and control

[edit]
Further information: Climate change adaptation § Flooding

Flood control

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Flood management.[edit]
A weir was built on the Humber River (Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.

Flood management describes methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. Flood management methods can be either of the structural type (i.e. flood control) and of the non-structural type. Structural methods hold back floodwaters physically, while non-structural methods do not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding. However, it is best practice within landscape engineering to rely more on soft infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the increase in water.

Flood management can include flood risk management, which focuses on measures to reduce risk, vulnerability and exposure to flood disasters and providing risk analysis through, for example, flood risk assessment.[35] Flood mitigation is a related but separate concept describing a broader set of strategies taken to reduce flood risk and potential impact while improving resilience against flood events.

As climate change has led to increased flood risk an intensity, flood management is an important part of climate change adaptation and climate resilience.[36][37] For example, to prevent or manage coastal flooding, coastal management practices have to handle natural processes like tides but also sea level rise due to climate change. The prevention and mitigation of flooding can be studied on three levels: on individual properties, small communities, and whole towns or cities.

Non-structural mechanisms

[edit]

If human systems are affected by flooding, an adaption to how that system operates on the coast through behavioral and institutional changes is required, these changes are the so-called non-structural mechanisms of coastal flooding response.[38]

Building regulations, coastal hazard zoning, urban development planning, spreading the risk through insurance, and enhancing public awareness are some ways of achieving this.[5][38][33] Adapting to the risk of flood occurrence can be the best option if the cost of building defense structures outweighs any benefits or if the natural processes in that stretch of coastline add to its natural character and attractiveness.[8]

A more extreme and often difficult to accept the response to coastal flooding is abandoning the area (also known as managed retreat) prone to flooding.[13] This however raises issues for where the people and infrastructure affected would go and what sort of compensation should/could be paid.

Engineered defenses

[edit]
Groynes are engineered structures that aim to prevent erosion of the beach front

There are a variety of ways in which humans are trying to prevent the flooding of coastal environments, typically through so-called hard engineering structures such as flood barriers, seawalls and levees.[8][39] That armouring of the coast is typical to protect towns and cities which have developed right up to the beachfront.[8] Enhancing depositional processes along the coast can also help prevent coastal flooding. Structures such as groynes, breakwaters, and artificial headlands promote the deposition of sediment on the beach thus helping to buffer against storm waves and surges as the wave energy is spent on moving the sediments in the beach than on moving water inland.[39]

Natural defenses

[edit]
Mangroves are one of the coasts natural defense systems against storm surges and flooding. Their high biomass both above and below the water can help dissipate wave energy.

Coastal areas do provide natural protective structures to guard against coastal flooding. These include physical features like gravel bars and sand dune systems, but also ecosystems such as salt marshes, seagrass and mangrove forests have a buffering function. Mangroves, wetlands and seagrass meadows are often considered to provide significant protection against storm waves, tsunamis, and shoreline erosion through their ability to attenuate wave energy.[6][9][10] To protect the coastal zone from flooding, the natural defenses should, therefore, be protected and maintained in for example Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).[11]

Longer term aspects and research

[edit]

Reducing global sea level rise is one way to prevent significant flooding of coastal areas. This could be minimised by further reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, even if significant emission decreases are achieved, there is already a substantial amount of sea level rise into the future.[5] International climate change policies like the Paris Agreement are seeking to mitigate the future effects of climate change, including sea level rise. In addition, more immediate measures of engineered and natural defenses are put in place to prevent coastal flooding.

Examples

[edit]
The Thames Barrier provides flood control for London, U.K.
Significant flooding in New Orleans as a result of Hurricane Katrina and the failure of the city's flood protection systems

Examples of countries with existing coastal flooding problems include:

Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans

[edit]

Hurricane Katrina made landfall as a category 3 cyclone on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, indicating that it had become an only moderate level storm.[16] However, the catastrophic damage caused by the extensive flooding was the result of the highest recorded storm surges in North America.[16] For several days prior to the landfall of Katrina, wave setup was generated by the persistent winds of the cyclonic rotation of the system. This prolonged wave set up coupled with the very low central pressure level meant massive storm surges were generated.[41] Storm surges overtopped and breached the levees and floodwalls intended to protect the city from inundation.[6][16][41] Unfortunately, New Orleans is inherently prone to coastal flooding for a number of factors. Firstly, much of New Orleans is below sea level and is bordered by the Mississippi River therefore protection against flooding from both the sea and the river has become dependent on engineered structures. Land-use change and modification to natural systems in the Mississippi River have rendered the natural defenses for the city less effective. Wetland loss has been calculated to be around 1,900 square miles (4,920 square kilometres) since 1930. This is a significant amount as four miles of wetland are estimated to reduce the height of a storm surge by one foot (30 centimeters).[6]

A village near the coast of Sumatra lies in ruin on 2 January 2005 after the devastating tsunami that struck on Boxing Day 2004
[edit]
Further information: List of tsunamis

2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami: An earthquake of approximately magnitude 9.0 struck off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia causing the propagation of a massive tsunami throughout the Indian Ocean.[9] This tsunami caused significant loss of human life, an estimate of 280,000 – 300,000 people has been reported [26] and caused extensive damage to villages, towns, and cities and to the physical environment. The natural structures and habitats destroyed or damaged include coral reefs, mangroves, beaches, and seagrass beds.[9] The more recent earthquake and tsunami in Japan in March 2011 (2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami) also clearly illustrates the destructive power of tsunamis and the turmoil of coastal flooding.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g Ramsay & Bell 2008
  2. ^ Doornkamp 1998.
  3. ^ a b Almar, Rafael; Ranasinghe, Roshanka; Bergsma, Erwin W. J.; Diaz, Harold; et al. (18 June 2021). "A global analysis of extreme coastal water levels with implications for potential coastal overtopping". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 3775. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.3775A. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24008-9. PMC 8213734. PMID 34145274.
  4. ^ "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". www.climatecentral.org. Archived from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nicholls 2002
  6. ^ a b c d e Griffis 2007
  7. ^ a b c d Dawson et al. 2009
  8. ^ a b c d Pope 1997
  9. ^ a b c d e Alongi 2008
  10. ^ a b van de Vijsel, Roeland C.; Hernández-García, Emilio; Orfila, Alejandro; Gomila, Damià (2023-11-20). "Optimal wave reflection as a mechanism for seagrass self-organization". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 20278. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1320278V. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-46788-4. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10662035. PMID 37985847.
  11. ^ a b "The Importance of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2024-07-30.
  12. ^ Sweet, William V.; Dusek, Greg; Obeysekera, Jayantha; Marra, John J. (February 2018). "Patterns and Projections of High Tide Flooding Along the U.S. Coastline Using a Common Impact Threshold" (PDF). tidesandcurrents.NOAA.gov. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2022. Fig. 2b
  13. ^ a b c d Gallien, Schubert & Sanders 2011
  14. ^ Kurian et al. 2009
  15. ^ a b Benavente et al. 2006
  16. ^ a b c Fox-Kemper, B.; Hewitt, Helene T.; Xiao, C.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, G.; Drijfhout, S. S.; Edwards, T. L.; Golledge, N. R.; Hemer, M.; Kopp, R. E.; Krinner, G.; Mix, A. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; Péan, C.; Berger, S.; Caud, N.; Chen, Y.; Goldfarb, L. (eds.). "Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change" (PDF). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-24. Retrieved 2022-10-18.
  17. ^ "WMO annual report highlights continuous advance of climate change". World Meteorological Organization. 21 April 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2023. Press Release Number: 21042023.
  18. ^ a b c IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers Archived 2021-08-11 at the Wayback Machine. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Archived 2023-05-26 at the Wayback Machine Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001.
  19. ^ WCRP Global Sea Level Budget Group (2018). "Global sea-level budget 1993–present". Earth System Science Data. 10 (3): 1551–1590. Bibcode:2018ESSD...10.1551W. doi:10.5194/essd-10-1551-2018. hdl:20.500.11850/287786. This corresponds to a mean sea-level rise of about 7.5 cm over the whole altimetry period. More importantly, the GMSL curve shows a net acceleration, estimated to be at 0.08mm/yr2.
  20. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2011). "Synopsis". Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millennia. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. p. 5. doi:10.17226/12877. ISBN 978-0-309-15176-4. Archived from the original on 2023-06-30. Retrieved 2022-04-11. Box SYN-1: Sustained warming could lead to severe impacts
  21. ^ Erik Bojnansky (March 9, 2017). "Sea levels are rising, so developers and governments need to band together: panel". The Real Deal. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
  22. ^ "What is nuisance flooding?". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved December 13, 2016.
  23. ^ "What is nuisance flooding? Defining and monitoring an emerging challenge | PreventionWeb.net". www.preventionweb.net. 24 August 2018. Retrieved 2021-01-07.
  24. ^ Karegar, Makan A.; Dixon, Timothy H.; Malservisi, Rocco; Kusche, Jürgen; Engelhart, Simon E. (2017-09-11). "Nuisance Flooding and Relative Sea-Level Rise: the Importance of Present-Day Land Motion". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 11197. Bibcode:2017NatSR...711197K. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-11544-y. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5593944. PMID 28894195.
  25. ^ a b c d Cochard et al. 2008
  26. ^ Goff et al. 2010
  27. ^ a b Llewellyn, CAPT Mark (2006). "Floods and Tsunamis" (PDF). The Surgical Clinics of North America. 86 (3): 557–578. doi:10.1016/j.suc.2006.02.006. PMID 16781270.
  28. ^ a b c d e Hunt & Watkiss 2011
  29. ^ Suarez et al. 2005
  30. ^ Tomita et al. 2006
  31. ^ Nadal et al. 2010
  32. ^ a b c d Snoussi, Ouchani & Niazi 2008
  33. ^ "2022 Sea Level Rise Technical Report". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-16.
  34. ^ Raadgever, G. T. (Tom); Booister, Nikéh; Steenstra, Martijn K. (2018), Raadgever, Tom; Hegger, Dries (eds.), "Flood Risk Management Strategies", Flood Risk Management Strategies and Governance, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 93–100, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-67699-9_8, ISBN 978-3-319-67699-9, retrieved 2021-11-03
  35. ^ "Strengthening climate resilience through better flood management". ReliefWeb. 30 July 2021. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  36. ^ Paoletti, Michele; Pellegrini, Marco; Belli, Alberto; Pierleoni, Paola; Sini, Francesca; Pezzotta, Nicola; Palma, Lorenzo (January 2023). "Discharge Monitoring in Open-Channels: An Operational Rating Curve Management Tool". Sensors. 23 (4). MDPI (published 10 February 2023): 2035. Bibcode:2023Senso..23.2035P. doi:10.3390/s23042035. ISSN 1424-8220. PMC 9964178. PMID 36850632.
  37. ^ a b Dawson et al. 2011
  38. ^ a b Short & Masselink 1999
  39. ^ Horner 1986
  40. ^ a b Ebersole et al. 2010

Sources

[edit]
  • Cochard, R.; Ranamukhaarachchi, S. L.; Shivakoti, G. P.; Shipin, O. V.; Edwards, P. J.; Seeland, K. T. (2008). "The 2004 tsunami in Aceh and Southern Thailand: A review on coastal ecosystems, wave hazards and vulnerability". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 10 (1): 3–40. Bibcode:2008PPEES..10....3C. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2007.11.001.
  • Dawson, J. R.; Ball, T.; Werritty, J.; Werritty, A.; Hall, J. W.; Roche, N. (2011). "Assessing the effectiveness of non-structural flood management measures in the Thames Estuary under conditions of socio-economic and environmental change". Global Environmental Change. 21 (2): 628–646. Bibcode:2011GEC....21..628D. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.013.
  • Nadal, N. C.; Zapata, R. E.; Pagán, I.; López, R.; Agudelo, J. (2010). "Building damage due to riverine and coastal floods". Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. 136 (3): 327–336. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000036.
  • Pope, J. (1997). "Responding to coastal erosion and flooding damages". Journal of Coastal Research. 3 (3): 704–710. JSTOR 4298666.
  • Short, A. D.; Masselink, G. (1999). "Embayed and Structurally Controlled Beaches". Handbook of Beach and Shoreface Morphodynamics. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 231–250. ISBN 978-0471965701.
  • Snoussi, M.; Ouchani, T.; Niazi, S. (2008). "Vulnerability assessment of the impact of sea-level rise and flooding on the Moroccan coast: The case of the Mediterranean Eastern Zone". Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 77 (2): 206–213. Bibcode:2008ECSS...77..206S. doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2007.09.024.
  • Suarez, P.; Anderson, W.; Mahal, V.; Lakshmanan, T. R. (2005). "Impacts of flooding and climate change on urban transportation: A systemwide performance assessment of the Boston Metro Area". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 10 (3): 231–244. Bibcode:2005TRPD...10..231S. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2005.04.007.


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coastal_flooding&oldid=1245427333"