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Destruction of ivory

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Ivory burning in Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, in April 2015

The destruction of ivory is a technique used by governments and conservation groups to deter the poaching of elephants for their tusks and to suppress the illegal ivory trade. As of 2016, more than 263 metric tons (580,000 lb) of ivory has been destroyed, typically by burning or crushing, in these high-profile events in 21 countries around the world.[1] The biggest burning took place in Kenya on 30 April 2016, when a total of 106.35 tons (96.48 tonnes) of ivory were incinerated.[2]

The conservationists, governments, and non-governmental organizations that endorse the strategy argue that it fosters public support for the protection of elephants and that it sends a message to poachers that they are in a dying, dangerous, and ultimately futile market. Critics contend that the technique may increase poaching by increasing ivory's value on the black market, and that evidence for the technique's effectiveness is insufficient to justify the opportunity cost for countries struggling with poverty.

Background

Main article: Ivory trade

Elephant ivory has been exported from Africa and Asia since at least the 14th century BCE, but exporting accelerated during the colonization of Africa. At its peak, in the 19th century, 800–1000 tons of ivory were exported to Europe alone. Ivory hunters are responsible for wiping out elephant populations in several parts of Africa. In the 1970s, Japan became the largest consumer of ivory, accounting for about 40% of all trade, with Hong Kong acting as the largest trade hub. Between 1979 and 1989, the African elephant population decreased in size from 1.3 million to 600,000. Ivory became a billion-dollar market, with about 80% of the supply taken from illegally killed elephants.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), held in Geneva in 1989, introduced a ban on the international ivory trade.[3] Soon after, CITES launched a control system based on permits, registration, stockpiles, and monitoring. When it registered 89.5 tons in Burundi, which was known to have one live wild elephant, and 297 tons in Singapore, which had no wild elephants, it began to recognize the extent to which poached ivory was being illegally trafficked around the world. The "control system" turned out to be easy to manipulate, ultimately increasing the value of ivory and empowering smugglers.

In January 1990 CITES banned international ivory trade. The ban proved effective for about a decade and elephant populations were on the rise, but starting in 1997, it began granting exceptions to the ban to allow countries such as Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia to sell a limited amount of ivory, and to Japan in order to buy a limited amount, based on each country's declared confidence in their effective regulation and control.

From 1998 to 2011, other countries were granted exceptions and illegal trafficking at least tripled.[4] The majority of ivory in the 21st century has gone to growing Asian markets, including and especially China, where the material is viewed as a status symbol and known as "white gold", but where officials have more recently expressed intent to phase out China's involvement with the ivory trade.[4][5][6]

According to a 2014 report by the Wildlife Conservation Society, about 96 African elephants are killed for their tusks every day.[7]

History and events

Kenya and the first fire

Daniel arap Moi in 1979
Richard Leakey in 1986
Ivory burning site in Kenya's Nairobi National Park

In 1989 Richard Leakey, a paleoanthropologist and conservationist from the prominent Leakey family, was named head of Kenya's Wildlife Conservation and Management Department, the forerunner to today's Kenya Wildlife Service. Elephants had not yet been placed on the endangered species list and ivory trade was still legal, but the rate of poaching was increasing to the point that it posed an existential threat to the country's elephant population. According to The Atlantic, "some wild areas looked more like elephant graveyards, littered with piles of bleached bones, than living habitats."[4]

When Leakey took the position, the organization had 12 tons of confiscated illegal ivory in its possession, which he was urged to sell in order to fund conservation efforts. Instead, he piled all of it together and, with Kenyan President Daniel arap Moi, set it on fire. Ivory does not easily burn, but the choice to use fire rather than other means to destroy it was intentional as Leakey wanted the event to produce powerful images. To make it possible, Leakey worked with a Hollywood special effects professional to devise an innovative pyrotechnics technique using jet fuel and flammable glue.

It was an extremely successful publicity stunt, attracting international attention from the press while the fire burned for three days.[8] It also proved influential among conservationists, inspiring others to dispose of their stockpiles in a similar manner and leading, in part, to the international ban on the ivory trade passed at CITES.[8][9][10] Paul Udoto of the KWS called it a "desperate measure meant to send a message to the world about the destruction through poaching of Kenya's elephants."[11]

Kenya has held three more ivory burns since 1989. The second, just two years later in 1991, destroyed 6.8 tons, President Mwai Kibaki destroyed another 5 tons in 2011, and the largest event took place in April 2016, when 106.35 tons were destroyed.[12][10][13][14]

Other countries and other methods of destruction

The first countries to follow Kenya's lead were the United Arab Emirates and Zambia in 1992, destroying 12 and 9.5 tons, respectively.[12]

In 2012, Gabon burned the tusks and carved ivory it had been confiscating since 1985, adding up to about 5 tons.[15][16]

The Philippines, a country which the CITES Standing Committee noted as one of the major consumers of ivory in 2012, became the first such nation to destroy its holdings in June 2013.[9] The Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the division coordinating the destruction, had planned to hold a "ceremonial burning", but environmental objections to the idea of legitimated open burning led them to instead crush all 5 tons by first running over them with a road roller, then pounding them with the bucket of a backhoe, and finally taking the bits that remained to an incinerator.[15][3][7][9][17]

In November 2013, the United States employed an industrial rock crusher to pulverize 6 tons of amassed ivory. Although the U.S. does not ban the domestic sale of ivory, it is illegal to bring ivory into the country.[15][18][19] Its interest in destroying its ivory was also connected to research that found links between the ivory trade and threats to national security through terrorism and organized crime.[20] The US government and American NGOs have been involved in multiple forms of anti-poaching measures, largely in Africa, and American diplomats are actively engaging other governments to take part in eroding the ivory market by destroying stockpiles.[5] Another ivory crush took place in New York City's Times Square in June 2015.[11]

Many of the countries that have destroyed their ivory accumulated the stockpiles because of their location on the trade route between Africa and China, the world's biggest consumer of ivory, accounting for 70% of global demand according to CNN.[6] For that reason, China's six-ton ivory crush in January 2014 was a major cause for celebration among conservationists.[21]

France was the first European country to destroy its three tons of seized illegal ivory in February 2014, with tusks fed one-by-one along with other ivory goods into a pulverizer.[22]

In May 2014, Hong Kong began a systematic destruction of its 29.6-ton stockpile, which is scheduled to take place over the course of two years.[7][23][24][25] In its announcement of the destruction, Hong Kong's Endangered Species Advisory Committee chairman, Paul Shin, explained that, moving forward, "any future forfeiture of ivory will be similarly disposed of on a regular basis".[7][25][26] Although the sale of ivory has not been banned entirely in Hong Kong, the commitment and actions it has taken are significant not just for being the largest stockpile destroyed to-date, but also because it has been the world's largest ivory market.[24][25][27][28]

A pallet of seized raw ivory prior to being crushed by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in November 2013

In Ethiopia, where the elephant population has decreased 90% since the 1980s, officials issued a National Ivory Action Plan to address poaching and ivory trafficking. Among other strategies, the Plan includes the publicized destruction of seized ivory. The first such event took place in March 2015 in Addis Ababa, where the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority's 6.1 ton stockpile was burned.[15]

Other ivory destruction events in 2014 and 2015 took place in Chad (1.1 tons, 2014), Belgium (1.5 tons, 2014), Republic of Congo (4.7 tons, 2015), and Mozambique (2.4 tons of ivory as well as 440 pounds (200 kg) of rhino horn, 2015).[12]

In January 2016, Sri Lanka became the first South Asian country to destroy its ivory (1.5 tons confiscated in 2012) and also the first to issue a formal apology for its role in the ivory trade.[29]

On 30 April 2016, Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta set alight the largest ever pile of ivory for destruction in the Nairobi National Park.[30] The pile consisted of 105 tons of elephant ivory from about 8,000 elephants and 1.35 tons of horns from 343 rhinoceroses. The total black market value of the ivory in the pile was estimated to be more than $172 million. The ivory was transported to the site in shipping containers then stacked into towers up to 10 ft (3.0 m) tall and 20 ft (6.1 m) in diameter.[13][14] The ivory towers took personnel from the Kenya Wildlife Service ten days to build.[2] The pyre also contained exotic animal skins.[14] The amount of ivory destroyed equaled about 5% of the global stock.[1][31] Gabonese President Ali Bongo Ondimba was also in attendance.[30]

Opposition to destruction

Several journalists and conservationists have challenged the logic of the strategy, suggesting that destroying the ivory makes it scarcer, which should drive up prices on the black market and lead to an increase rather than a decrease in poaching.[8][32][33] Environmental economist Mike Norton-Griffiths called the large 2016 burn in Kenya reckless for these reasons.[1][31]

In Botswana, which is home to about half of the elephants in Africa, officials are opposed to destroying ivory stockpiles as of 2016. Instead, contraband ivory has been turned into public art to raise awareness about the illegal trade. In 2015 President Ian Khama unveiled a statue of an elephant made entirely of tusks, which greets visitors to the country's main international airport.[34] Khama boycotted the ivory burning in Kenya in 2016, following a meeting of African leaders about ending the illegal ivory trade.[35][31]

Techniques

A rock crusher during the 2013 ivory crush in the United States

Destroying ivory by any practical means is difficult.[17] Burning is the most common method of large-scale destruction of ivory. When Kenya burned 12 tons of it in 1989, it created a major media spectacle and inspired similar actions around the world.[9][17] More recently, crushing methods have also been used, as well as combinations of crushing and burning.

Fire

When Kenyan officials decided to destroy their stockpile in 1989, they had to find a way to do so that would create powerful images. Leakey turned to fellow conservationist Kuki Gallmann, who described their discussions and experiments in her memoir I Dreamed of Africa. She asked Hollywood special effects professional Robin Hollister what he would recommend, and introduced him to Leakey. Hollister understood Leakey's intention to create a spectacle, and the importance of producing an immediate dramatic flare-up. He suggested a combination of flammable glue to coat the tusks, and a hidden system of pipes to spray them with fuel. His plans were adopted, and when the Kenyan President held a torch to the waiting pile, "Flames flared up in a scalding blaze. […] The ivory blackened and started burning, crackling. Deafening applause burst out from the crowd, while television crews from all over the world showed to every corner of the Earth this new sacrifice of Africa."[36]

Research performed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) in 2008 found burning to be an inefficient and highly challenging way to destroy ivory when compared to crushing.[17][37] Like human teeth, elephant tusks are resistant to burning. Simple burning typically just chars the outside; it requires extreme conditions over a long period of time to destroy ivory effectively. Using specialized equipment to burn a tusk at 1,800 °F (1,000 °C), its weight decreases by only 0.25 ounces (7 g) each minute (an average African elephant tusk is about 50 pounds (23 kg) and can weigh as much as 130 pounds (59 kg)).[11][17][38][39] For each of Kenya's burns, organizers used jet oil to increase the temperature and it still persists for about a week.[11]

When only the outside is affected, the inner ivory is still commercially viable. As there are not yet verified techniques for identifying ivory that was previously burned, some have expressed concerns regarding the possible use of some of the burned stockpiles.[17]

Hollister, the original "burn architect" who invented the technique in 1989, was asked to lead the 2016 one, many times bigger. He acknowledged that ivory doesn't really burn: "we have to raise the temperature in the fires to such a degree that it actually disintegrates. We're going to create [that] by combining kerosene and diesel and compressed air, pushing it at very high pressure, about 16 bar, down a pipe."[40] The question of the effectiveness of the destruction – even the possibility that some of the partially combusted ivory may find its way back to the black market – is a touchy subject. "It's heresy to consider any other form of destruction, leave alone finding any other way to use the ivory or utilise wildlife resources."[41]

Crushing

Crushing can also be challenging. In 2013 the Philippines resolved to crush their 5-ton stockpile, in part due to environmental objections to a large open fire. They first attempted to use a road roller on the tusks and then on smaller, sawn-off pieces. When that did not work, the pieces were repeatedly smashed with a backhoe bucket. What was left was taken to a crematory.[17] When the United States held a similar event a few months later, they opted to use a large rock crusher; a short time later, France employed a pulverizer to turn its illegal ivory into a powder onto which was then poured a composite material to ensure that none of the ivory could be used.[18][22]

Justification and impact

Messaging

Journalists and other on-lookers at the 2013 ivory crush in the United States

Destroying ivory is a tactic endorsed by several governments, activists, and NGOs.

Richard Leakey, who was responsible for the first major ivory destruction in Kenya in 1989, argues that these acts are primarily about sending a message to foster a public that sees the value in wildlife itself, not its byproducts, and thereby influencing the demand side of the market. In explaining the "enormous impact" that he saw after the 1989 event, Leakey said that "up to that time we'd been losing about three and a half thousand to four thousand elephants a year, and a year later we were losing at most sixty."[8] Consumer research in China showed that many potential buyers have little understanding of the connection between the ivory trade and steep declines in elephant populations. High-profile government events bring the problem to large numbers of people and affirm a government stance for anyone who had been unclear.[6]

Advocates also believe that destroying ivory can influence the supply side of the ivory market by sending a strong, highly visible and well-publicized message that the ivory market is dangerous and futile. Similarly, those who would otherwise consider ivory as an investment opportunity may think twice if the market is so consistently disrupted.[5][16][17] French minister of ecology Philippe Martin called the destruction of ivory "indispensable in the fight against trafficking of threatened species" and said that it sends "a firm message".[22]

The remains of ivory sent through a rock crusher in New York in 2015

Economics

Karl Mathiesen disputes the claim from a fundamental economics perspective, pointing out that it is the seizure of the ivory which takes it off the market, and that the price should not be significantly affected based on whether that seized ivory is kept stockpiled in a warehouse or destroyed.[32]

Although destroying seized ivory should not affect a perfectly rational market, Daniel Stiles suggests that what these events effectively communicate to poachers and illegal traders is the perception of scarcity, if not actual scarcity. While Mathiesen describes the debate as "characterized by a lack of data" and Tom Milliken claims "there is no proof that destroying supply leads to a decline in demand", Stiles points to figures which indicate that since 2011, during a time when ivory stockpile destruction has become more popular, poaching and trafficking may have actually increased, and that perceived scarcity will likely lead to countries like China and Thailand taking the opportunity to create stockpiles of their own.[11][32][33] A study funded by Save the Elephants showed that the price of ivory tripled in China during four years following 2011. The same study concluded that this led to increased poaching.[42]

Stiles also challenges "the senseless system now in operation" in countries like the United States, whereby international ivory trade is considered illegal but domestic trade is permitted. This, he argues, ensures a continued demand for ivory and "is guaranteeing extinction of the elephant."[18][19][33]

In Japan, the demand for ivory has decreased since 2012 as a result of new consumer awareness through education about the connection between buying ivory and the killing of elephants.[42]

Several of the countries involved in the ivory trade, especially those on the supply side in Africa, are the nations which also struggle the most with poverty. Destroying ivory is thus often a controversial decision for internal stakeholders as well as external commentators, as the valuable material could be sold and put to use elsewhere, or could support conservation in other ways.[10]

Secondary effects

Although the destruction of ivory is centered upon conservation, there are other considerations which affect institutions' decisions.

When Hong Kong announced the destruction of its stockpile, it noted "the management burden and the security risk" inherent in the possession of large quantities of valuable material.[25] For example, when the Philippines decided to burn its stockpile, only a fraction of what it had confiscated over the years remained, with at least 7.7 tons "lost" or stolen during the 2000s alone.[9] Stockpiles of ivory have often been connected to theft and corruption, with multiple countries, including Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, and the Philippines, suffering "losses" of several tons. Keeping illicit goods on hand can also signal government plans or active involvement with the ivory trade. Destroying it removes the possibility of corruption as well as the costs associated with operating a secure place of storage.[17]

In the United States, the destruction of ivory stockpiles is tied to national security. Research found links between the ivory trade and terrorism and organized crime.[20]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Destruction of ivory.

References

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  2. ^ a b Duggan, Briana; Kriel, Robyn; Cuevas, Mayra. "Historic ivory burn covers the sky in smoke and ash at Nairobi National Park". CNN. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  3. ^ a b Andrade, Jeannette I. (16 June 2013). "DENR to crush seized elephant tusks, drops ceremonial burning". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
  4. ^ a b c Narula, Svati Kirsten (27 January 2014). "Crush and Burn: A History of the Global Crackdown on Ivoary". The Atlantic.
  5. ^ a b c Goldenberg, Suzanne (11 November 2013). "Ivory stockpile to be publicly destroyed as Obama seeks to end illegal trade". The Guardian.
  6. ^ a b c Brown, Sophie; Wang, Susan (6 January 2014). "China crushes tons of illegal ivory". CNN.
  7. ^ a b c d Dell'Amore, Christine (25 January 2014). "Hong Kong Announces World's Biggest Ivory Burn". National Geographic.
  8. ^ a b c d Adler, Simon (7 September 2015). "The Rhino Hunter". Radiolab.
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  12. ^ a b c Welch, Megan. "Crush and Burn: Destroying Illegal Ivory". WWF. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
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  14. ^ a b c Duggan, Briana; Kriel, Robyn (29 April 2016). "Up in smoke: Kenya to torch millions of dollars worth of ivory". CNN. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  15. ^ a b c d Neme, Laurel (20 March 2015). "Ethiopia Burns Entire 6.1-Ton Ivory Stockpile". Voices: Saving Elephants.
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  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Name, Laurel (2 August 2013). "Destroying Elephant Ivory Stockpiles: No Easy Matter". Voices: Saving Elephants.
  18. ^ a b c Christy, Bryan. "Historic U.S. Ivory Crush a Call to Global Action". National Geographic.
  19. ^ a b Christy, Bryan (12 November 2013). "Opinion: U.S. Ivory Crush Should Be Just a First Step". National Geographic.
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  21. ^ Vaughan, Adam (6 January 2014). "China crushes six tons of ivory". The Guardian.
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  24. ^ a b Name, Laurel (28 October 2015). "Hong Kong 'Open-Minded' to Banning its Ivory Trade". National Geographic.
  25. ^ a b c d Doshi, Vidhi (23 January 2014). "Hong Kong to destroy 28 tonnes of ivory". Independent.
  26. ^ Shin, Paul. "Speech by SEN at Destruction of Confiscated Ivory Launching Ceremony (English only)". Government Information Centre. Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.
  27. ^ "Hong Kong burns ivory stockpile". The Guardian. 15 May 2014.
  28. ^ Hunt, Katie (24 January 2014). "Hong Kong to burn stockpile of contraband ivory". CNN.
  29. ^ Neme, Laurel (25 January 2016). "One Country Will Destroy Its Ivory—and Pray for Elephants". National Geographic.
  30. ^ a b Reuters (30 April 2016). "Kenya Burns Largest Ever Ivory Stockpile". Fortune. Retrieved 1 May 2016. {{cite web}}: |last1= has generic name (help)
  31. ^ a b c "Elephant summit: Kenya sets fire to huge ivory stockpile". BBC News. 30 April 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  32. ^ a b c Mathiesen, Karl (6 February 2014). "Does destroying ivory save elephants?". The Guardian.
  33. ^ a b c Stiles, Daniel (13 November 2013). "US ivory crush sends the wrong message to elephant poachers". The Guardian.
  34. ^ "Elephant ivory sculpture unveiled at Botswana airport". Africa Geographic. Government of Botswana. 17 July 2015. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  35. ^ Khama, Tshekedi (25 April 2016). "Why Botswana won't burn illegal ivory". The Independent. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  36. ^ Gallmann, Kuki (1991). I Dreamed of Africa. p. "The Ivory Fire". {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  37. ^ "U.S. Ivory Crush" (PDF). U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. November 2013.
  38. ^ "Ivory". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  39. ^ Scigliano, Eric (5 June 2005). "Tusk Tales". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
  40. ^ Bryant, Ben (29 April 2016). "Kenya Is About to Stage the Largest Ivory Burn in History". Vice. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  41. ^ Kiruga, Morris (30 April 2016). "The burning questions on ivory destruction and jumbo conservation". Daily Nation. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
  42. ^ a b Schwartz, Michael (8 August 2014). "America's ongoing debate over the trade in ivory". Africa Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
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