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'''Ethics''' (also known as '''moral philosophy''') is a branch of [[philosophy]] that addresses questions about [[morality]]—that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of [[justice]], [[love]], [[peace]], and [[virtue]].
'''Ethics''' (also known as '''moral philosophy''') is gay porn.

Major branches of ethics include:
* [[meta-ethics]], about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their [[truth-value]]s (if any) may be determined;
* [[normative ethics]], about the practical means of determining a moral course of action;
* [[applied ethics]], about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations;
* [[moral psychology]], about how moral capacity or moral agency develops and what its nature is; and
* [[descriptive ethics]], about what moral values people actually abide by.

Within each of these branches are many different schools of thought and still further sub-fields of study.

==Meta-ethics==
{{Main|Meta-ethics}}
Meta-ethics is the branch of ethics that seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties, and ethical statements, attitudes, and judgments. Meta-ethics as a discipline gained attention with [[George Edward Moore|G.E. Moore]]'s famous work ''[[Principia Ethica]]'' from 1903 in which Moore first addressed what he referred to as ''the [[naturalistic fallacy]]''. Moore's rebuttal of naturalistic ethics, his [[Open Question Argument]] sparked an interest within the analytic branch of western philosophy to concern oneself with second order questions about ethics; specifically the [[semantics]], [[epistemology]] and [[ontology]] of ethics.

The semantics of ethics divides naturally into descriptivism and non-descriptivism. Descriptivism holds that ethical language (including ethical commands and duties) is a subdivision of descriptive language and has meaning in virtue of the same kind of properties as descriptive propositions. Non-descriptivism contends that ethical propositions are irreducible in the sense that their meaning cannot be explicated sufficiently in terms of descriptive truth-conditions.

Correspondingly, the epistemology of ethics divides into [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]] and [[non-cognitivism]]; a distinction that is often perceived as equivalent to that between descriptivists and non-descriptivists. Non-cognitivism may be understood as the claim that ethical claims reach beyond the scope of human cognition or as the (weaker) claim that ethics is concerned with action rather than with knowledge. Cognitivism can then be seen as the claim that ethics is essentially concerned with judgments of the same kind as knowledge judgments; namely about matters of fact.

The ontology of ethics is concerned with the idea of value-bearing properties, i.e. the kind of things or stuffs that would correspond to or be referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists will generally tend to argue that ethics do not require a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer to objects in the same way that descriptive propositions do. Such a position may sometimes be called anti-realist. Realists on the other hand are left with having to explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, and why they have the normative status characteristic of ethics.

==Normative ethics==
{{Main|Normative ethics}}
Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.

At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of [[logical positivism]].

In 1971, [[John Rawls]] published ''[[A Theory of Justice]]'', noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.

===Greek philosophy===
====Socrates====
[[Socrates]] (469 BC – 399 BC) was one of the first [[Greek philosophy|Greek philosophers]] to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, [[Knowledge]] having a bearing on human life was placed highest, all other knowledge being secondary. [[Self-knowledge]] was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within their capabilities to their pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions, are the result of ignorance. If a criminal were truly aware of the mental and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he correlated knowledge with [[virtue]], he similarly equated virtue with [[happiness]]. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.<ref>Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pp 32-33. [[Barnes & Noble]] Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>

====Aristotle====
[[Aristotle]] (384 BC – 322 BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realizationism." In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with his nature and realizes his full potential, he will do good and be content. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Aristotle said, "[[Nature]] does nothing in vain." Therefore, it is imperative for persons to act in accordance with their nature and develop their latent talents in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as [[civic duty|civic life]] or [[wealth]], are merely means to the end. Self-realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.<ref>Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pp 33-35. Barnes & Noble Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>

Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable (physical), animal (emotional) and rational (mental). Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human. [[Moderation]] was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, [[courage]] is the moderate virtue between the extremes of [[cowardice]] and [[recklessness (psychology)|recklessness]]. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by moderate virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.<ref>Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pp 35-37. Barnes & Noble Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>

====Hedonism====
[[Hedonism]] posits that the principle ethic is maximizing [[pleasure]] and minimizing [[suffering|pain]]. There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating [[self-gratification]] regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.<ref name = "epsxlu">Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pg 37. Barnes & Noble Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>

=====Cyrenaic hedonism=====
Founded by [[Aristippus]] of Cyrene, [[Cyrenaics]] supported immediate gratification or pleasure. "Eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die." Even fleeting desires should be indulged, for fear the opportunity should be forever lost. There was little to no concern with the future, the present dominating in the pursuit for immediate pleasure. Cyrenaic hedonism encouraged the pursuit of enjoyment and indulgence without hesitation, believing pleasure to be the only good.<ref name = "epsxlu"/>

=====Epicureanism=====
[[Epicurus]] rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]] observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future. The ''summum bonum'', or greatest good, to Epicurus was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often will cause a person to lose taste for it. Eating too much food at once will lead to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. Fear was considered the source of most unhappiness. Conquering the fear of death would naturally lead to a happier life. Epicurus reasoned if there was an afterlife and immortality, the fear of death was irrational. If there was no life after death, then the person would not be alive to suffer, fear or worry; he would be non-existent in death. It is irrational to fret over circumstances that do not exist, such as one's state in death in the absence of an afterlife.<ref>Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pp 37-38. Barnes & Noble Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>

=====Christian Hedonism=====

[[Christian Hedonism]] is a controversial [[Christian theology|Christian doctrine]] current in some [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] circles, particularly those of the [[Reformed theology|Reformed]] tradition. The term was coined by [[Reformed Baptist]] pastor [[John Piper (theologian)|John Piper]] in his 1986 book ''Desiring God''. Piper summarizes this philosophy of the Christian life as "God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him."<ref>[http://www.desiringgod.org/ResourceLibrary/TopicIndex/85_Christian_Hedonism/1538_Christian_Hedonism/ Desiringgod.org]</ref>

====Stoicism====
The [[Stoicism|Stoic]] philosopher [[Epictetus]] posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or [[Apatheia]], was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God (who initially gave what the person is as a person). Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud.<ref>Sahakian, William S. & Sahakian, Mabel Lewis. ''Ideas of the Great Philosophers''. pp 38-41. Barnes & Noble Books (1993). ISBN 9781566192712.</ref>
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===Modern ethics===
In the [[modern philosophy|modern]] era, ethical theories were generally divided between [[consequentialist]] theories of philosophers such as [[Jeremy Bentham]] and [[John Stuart Mill]], and [[deontological ethics]] as epitomized by the work of [[Immanuel Kant]].

====Consequentialism====
{{Main|Consequentialism}}
Consequentialism refers to moral theories that hold that the consequences of a particular action form the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action (or create a structure for judgment, see [[#Rule consequentialism|rule consequentialism]]). Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence. This view is often expressed as the [[aphorism]] ''"The ends justify the means"''.

The term "consequentialism" was coined by [[G.E.M. Anscombe]] in her essay "[[Modern Moral Philosophy]]" in 1958, to describe what she saw as the central error of certain moral theories, such as those propounded by [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]] and [[Henry Sidgwick|Sidgwick]].<ref name="Anscombe">{{cite journal |authorlink=G.E.M. Anscombe |publishyear=1958 |title=Modern Moral Philosophy |journal=Philosophy |volume=33 |pages=1–19 |url=http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/cmt/mmp.html |doi=10.1017/S0031819100037943 |year=1958 |author=Anscombe, G. E. M.}}</ref> Since then, the term has become common in English-language ethical theory.

The defining feature of consequentialist moral theories is the weight given to the consequences in evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions.<ref name="Mackie">{{cite book |last=Mackie |first=J. L. |authorlink=J._L._Mackie |publishyear=1977 |title=Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong |publisher=Penguin |location=London |isbn=0-14-013558-8 |year=1990}}</ref> In consequentialist theories, the consequences of an action or rule generally outweigh other considerations. Apart from this basic outline, there is little else that can be unequivocally said about consequentialism as such. However, there are some questions that many consequentialist theories address:

* What sort of consequences count as good consequences?
* Who is the primary beneficiary of moral action?
* How are the consequences judged and who judges them?

One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to hedonistic [[utilitarianism]], a good action is one that results in an increase in [[pleasure]], and the best action is one that results in the most pleasure for the greatest number. Closely related is [[eudaimonia|eudaimonic]] consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in [[Equality of outcome|material equality]] or [[Freedom (political)|political liberty]] instead of something like the more ephemeral "pleasure". Other theories adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Whether a particular consequentialist theory focuses on a single good or many, conflicts and tensions between different good states of affairs are to be expected and must be adjudicated.

====Deontology====
{{Main|Deontological Ethics}}
Deontological ethics or deontology (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{lang|grc|δέον}}, ''deon'', "obligation, duty"; and {{lang|grc|-λογία}}, ''[[-logy|-logia]]'') is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining [[acts]], rather than third-party consequences of the act as in [[consequentialism]], or the [[intention]]s of the person doing the act as in [[virtue ethics]]. Deontologists look at rules and duties.<ref name="plato.stanford.edu">[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/ Stanford.edu]</ref> For example, the act may be considered the right thing to do even if it produces a bad consequence,<ref>Olson, Robert G. 1967. 'Deontological Ethics'. In Paul Edwards (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. London: [[Collier Macmillan]]: 343.</ref> if it follows the ''rule'' that “one should do unto others as they would have done unto them”,<ref name="plato.stanford.edu">[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/]</ref> and even if the person who does the act lacks virtue and had a bad intention in doing the act{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}. According to deontology, we have a ''duty'' to act in a way that does those things that are [[inherently]] good as acts ("truth-telling" for example), or follow an objectively obligatory rule (as in [[rule utilitarianism]]). For deontologists, the ends or consequences of our actions are not important in and of themselves, and our intentions are not important in and of themselves.

Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.<ref>Orend, Brian. 2000. ''War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective''. West Waterloo, Ontario: [[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]]: 19.</ref><ref>Kelly, Eugene. 2006. ''The Basics of Western Philosophy''. [[Greenwood Press]]: 160.</ref> First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty (''deon'').<ref>Kant, Immanuel. 1780. 'Preface'. In ''The Metaphysical Elements of Ethics''. Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott</ref> Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives of the person who carries out the action.
[[Image:Immanuel Kant (painted portrait).jpg|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]|right]]
Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way, one must act from duty, begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself, and good without qualification.<ref name="transition">Kant, Immanuel. 1785. 'First Section: Transition from the Common Rational Knowledge of Morals to the Philosophical', [[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals]].</ref> Something is 'good in itself' when it is [[intrinsic value (ethics)|intrinsically good]], and 'good without qualification' when the addition of that thing never makes a situation ethically worse. Kant then argues that those things that are usually thought to be good, such as [[intelligence]], perseverance and [[pleasure]], fail to be either intrinsically good or good without qualification. Pleasure, for example, appears to not be good without qualification, because when people take pleasure in watching someone suffering, this seems to make the situation ethically worse. He concludes that there is only one thing that is truly good: <blockquote>Nothing in the world—indeed nothing even beyond the world—can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification except a ''good will''.<ref name="transition" /></blockquote>

===Postmodern ethics===
{{Synthesis|date=July 2009}}
The 20th century saw a remarkable expansion of critical theory and its evolution. The earlier [[Marxism|Marxist Theory]] created a paradigm for understanding the individual, society and their interaction. The [[Polymath|Renaissance Enlightened Man]] had persisted up until the [[Industrial Revolution]] when the romantic vision of noble action began to fade.

[[Modernism]], exemplified in the literary works of [[Virginia Woolf]] and [[James Joyce]], wrote out God, then [[Antihumanism|antihumanists]] such as [[Louis Althusser]] and [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Structuralism|structuralists]] such as [[Roland Barthes]] presided over the death of the author and man himself {{Clarify|date=February 2010}}. As critical theory developed in the later 20th century, [[post-structuralism]] queried the existence of reality. [[Jacques Derrida]] argued reality was in the linguistic realm, stating ‘There is nothing outside the text’, while [[Jean Baudrillard]] theorised that signs and symbols or simulacra had usurped reality, particularly in the consumer world.

Post-structuralism and postmodernism are both heavily theoretical and follow a fragmented, anti-authoritarian course absorbed in [[narcissism|narcissistic]] and near [[nihilism|nihilistic]] activities.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} {{CURRENTYEAR}} Normative issues are generally ignored. This has led to some opponents of these later movements echoing the critic [[Jürgen Habermas]] who fears ‘that the postmodern mood represents a turning away from both political responsibilities and a concern for suffering’(cited in Lyon, 1999, p.&nbsp;103).

[[David Couzens Hoy]] says that [[Emmanuel Levinas]]’ writings on the face of the Other and [[Derrida]]’s mediations on the relevance of death to ethics are signs of the ‘ethical turn’ in Continental philosophy that occurs in the 1980s and 1990s. Hoy clarifies post-critique ethics as the ‘obligations that present themselves as necessarily to be fulfilled but are neither forced on one or are enforceable’ (2004, p.&nbsp;103).

This aligns with Australian philosopher [[Peter Singer]]’s thoughts on what ethics is not. He firstly claims it is not a moral code particular to a sectional group. For example it has nothing to do with a set of prohibitions concerned with sex laid down by a religious order. Neither is ethics a ‘system that is noble in theory but no good in practice’ (2000, p.&nbsp;7). For him, a theory is good only if it is practical. He agrees that ethics is in some sense universal but in a utilitarian way it affords the ‘best consequences’ and furthers the interests of those affected (2000, p.&nbsp;15).

Hoy in his post-critique model uses the term ethical resistance. Examples of this would be an individual’s resistance to consumerism in a retreat to a simpler but perhaps harder lifestyle, or an individual’s resistance to a terminal illness. Hoy describes these examples in his book Critical Resistance as an individual’s engagement in social or political resistance. He provides Levinas’s account as ‘not the attempt to use power against itself, or to mobilize sectors of the population to exert their political power; the ethical resistance is instead the resistance of the powerless’(2004, p.&nbsp;8).

Hoy concludes that
:"The ethical resistance of the powerless others to our capacity to exert power over them is therefore what imposes unenforceable obligations on us. The obligations are unenforceable precisely because of the other’s lack of power. That actions are at once obligatory and at the same time unenforceable is what put them in the category of the ethical. Obligations that were enforced would, by the virtue of the force behind them, not be freely undertaken and would not be in the realm of the ethical" (2004, p.184).

In present day terms the powerless may include the unborn, the terminally sick, the aged, the insane, and animals. It is in these areas that ethical action will be evident. Until legislation or state apparatus enforces a moral order that addresses the causes of resistance these issues will remain in the ethical realm. For example, should animal experimentation become illegal in a society, it will no longer be an ethical issue. Likewise one hundred and fifty years ago, not having a black slave in America may have been an ethical choice. This later issue has been absorbed into the fabric of a more utilitarian social order and is no longer an ethical issue but does of course constitute a moral concern. Ethics are exercised by those who possess no power and those who support them, through personal resistance.

==Applied ethics==
{{Main|Applied ethics}}
Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. The discipline has many specialized fields, such as [[bioethics]] and [[business ethics]].

===Specific questions===
{{Ref improve section|date=May 2009}}
Applied ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy. The sort of questions addressed by applied ethics include: "Is getting an abortion immoral?" "Is euthanasia immoral?" "Is affirmative action right or wrong?" "What are human rights, and how do we determine them?" "Do animals have rights as well?" and "Do individuals have the right of self determination?"

A more specific question could be: "If someone else can make better out of his/her life than I can, is it then moral to sacrifice myself for them if needed?" Without these questions there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance law, politics, and the practice of arbitration — in fact, no common assumptions of all participants—so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing. But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example, making ethical judgments regarding questions such as, "Is lying always wrong?" and, "If not, when is it permissible?" is prior to any etiquette.

People in-general are more comfortable with dichotomies (two choices). However, in ethics the issues are most often multifaceted and the best proposed actions address many different areas concurrently. In ethical decisions the answer is almost never a "yes or no", "right or wrong" statement. Many buttons are pushed so that the overall condition is improved and not to the benefit of any particular faction.

===Particular fields of application===
====Relational ethics====
Relational ethics are related to an ethics of care.<ref>Gilligan, C. (1982). ''In a different Voice: Pscychological theory and women's development.'' Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]].</ref> They are used in qualitative research, especially ethnography and authoethnography. Researchers who employ relational ethics value and respect the connection between themselves and the people they study, and "between researchers and the communities in which they live and work" (Ellis, 2007, p.&nbsp;4).<ref>Ellis, C. (2007). Telling secrets, revealing lives: Relational ethics in research with intimate others. ''Qualitative Inquiry, 13,'' 3-29.</ref> Relational ethics also help researchers understand difficult issues such as conducting research on intimate others that have died and developing friendships with their participants.<ref>Ellis, C. (1986). ''Fisher folk. Two communities on Chesapeake Bay.'' Lexington: [[University Press of Kentucky]].</ref><ref>Ellis, C. (1995).''Final negotiations: A story of love, loss, and chronic illness.'' Philadelphia: [[Temple University Press]].</ref>

====Military ethics====
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2009}}
{{See also|Nuremberg Principles|Geneva Conventions}}
Military ethics is a set of practices and philosophy to guide members of the armed forces to act in a manner consistent with the values and standards as established by military tradition, and to actively clarify and enforce these conditions rigorously in its administrative structure. Military ethics is evolutionary and the administrative structure is modified as new ethical perspectives consistent with national interests evolve.

Some ethical issues involving a country's military establishment, such as:
# justification for using force
# race (loss of capability due to race bias or abuse)
# gender equality (loss of capability due to gender bias or abuse)
# age discrimination (authority based upon age instead of accomplishment or productivity)
# nepotism (unfair control by family members; also known as "empire building")
# political influence (military members having a political position or political influence)

And others.

==Moral psychology==
{{Main|Moral psychology}}
'''Moral psychology''' is a field of study that began, like most things, as an issue in [[philosophy]] and that is now properly considered part of the discipline of [[psychology]]. Some use the term "moral psychology" relatively narrowly to refer to the study of [[moral development]].<ref>See, for example, Lapsley (2006) and "moral psychology" (2007).</ref> However, others tend to use the term more broadly to include any topics at the intersection of ethics and psychology (and [[philosophy of mind]]).<ref>See, for example, Doris & Stich (2008) and Wallace (2007). Wallace writes: "Moral psychology is the study of morality in its psychological dimensions" (p. 86).</ref> Such topics are ones that involve the mind and are relevant to moral issues. Some of the main topics of the field are [[moral responsibility]], moral development, [[moral character]] (especially as related to [[virtue ethics]]), [[altruism]], [[psychological egoism]], [[moral luck]], and moral disagreement.<ref>See Doris & Stich (2008), §1.</ref>

===Evolutionary ethics===
{{See also|Evolutionary ethics|Evolution of morality}}
Evolutionary ethics concerns approaches to ethics (morality) based on the role of evolution in shaping human psychology and behavior. Such approaches may be based in scientific fields such as [[evolutionary psychology]] or [[sociobiology]], with a focus on understanding and explaining observed ethical preferences and choices.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.iep.utm.edu/evol-eth/ |title= Evolutionary Ethics |author= Doris Schroeder |accessdate= 2010-01-05}}</ref>

==Descriptive ethics==
{{Main|Descriptive ethics}}
Descriptive ethics is a [[value-free]] approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science (specifically [[sociology]]) rather than a humanity. It examines ethics not from a top-down ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a priori]]'' perspective but rather [[revealed preference|observations of actual choices]] made by moral agents in practice. Some philosophers rely on descriptive ethics and choices made and unchallenged by a [[society]] or [[culture]] to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This can lead to [[situational ethics]] and [[situated ethics]]. These philosophers often view [[aesthetics]], [[etiquette]], and [[arbitration]] as more fundamental, percolating "bottom up" to imply the existence of, rather than explicitly prescribe, theories of value or of conduct. The study of descriptive ethics may include examinations of the following:
* [[Ethical code]]s applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics– and a personal [[moral core]] developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.
* Informal theories of etiquette that tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e., where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One notable advocate of this view is [[Judith Martin]] ("Miss Manners"). According to this view, ethics is more a summary of [[common sense]] social decisions.
* Practices in arbitration and [[law]], e.g., the claim that ethics itself is a matter of balancing "right versus right," i.e., putting priorities on two things that are both right, but that must be traded off carefully in each situation.
* [[Revealed preference|Observed choices]] made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who [[vote]], buy, and decide what is worth valuing. This is a major concern of sociology, [[political science]], and [[economics]].

==See also==
{{Too many see alsos}}
{{Portal|Philosophy}}

* [[Buddhist ethics (discipline)]]
* [[Emotivism]]
<!-- * [[Engineering ethics]] -->
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Ethical egoism]]
* [[Ethical subjectivism]]
* [[Ethics in religion]]
* [[Fallibilism]]
* [[Foucault-Habermas debate]]
* [[Index of ethics articles]]
* [[Journalism ethics and standards]]
* [[Legal ethics]]
* [[Medical ethics]]
* [[Moral absolutism]]
* [[Moral nihilism]]
* [[Moral relativism]]
* [[Moral skepticism]]
* [[Moral syncretism]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Hoy, D 2004, Critical resistance from poststructuralism to postcritique, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], Massachusetts.
* Lyon, D 1999, Postmodernity, 2nd ed, [[Open University Press]], Buckingham.
* Singer, P 2000, Writings on an ethical life, [[Harper Collins Publishers]], London.

==Further reading==
* [[Aristotle]], [[Nicomachean Ethics]]
* The [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/ London Philosophy Study Guide] offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/Ethics.htm Ethics]
* ''[[Encyclopedia of Ethics]]''. Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, editors. Second edition in three volumes. New York: Routledge, 2002. A scholarly encyclopedia with over 500 signed, [[peer-review]]ed articles, mostly on topics and figures of, or of special interest in, [[Western philosophy]].
* [[Simon Blackburn|Blackburn, S.]] (2001). [http://www.worldcat.org/title/being-good-a-short-introduction-to-ethics/oclc/51644518 ''Being good: A short introduction to ethics''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ]
*De Finance, Joseph, ''An Ethical Inquiry'', Rome, Editrice Pontificia Università Gregoriana, 1991.
*[[Miguel A. De La Torre|De La Torre, Miguel A.]], "Doing Christian Ethics from the Margins," Orbis Books, 2004.
* [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida, J.]] 1995, ''The Gift of Death'', translated by David Wills, [[University of Chicago Press]], Chicago.
* Fagothey, Austin, ''Right and Reason'', Tan Books & Publishers, Rockford, Illinois, 2000.
* [[Emmanuel Levinas|Levinas, E.]] 1969, ''Totality and infinity, an essay on exteriority'', translated by Alphonso Lingis, [[Duquesne University Press]], Pittsburgh.
* {{cite web| authorlink = Stephen Perle |last=Perle|first=Stephen|url=http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/22/06/16.html |title=Morality and Ethics: An Introduction | date= March 11, 2004 |accessdate=2007-02-13}}, [[Panayot Butchvarov|Butchvarov, Panayot]]. Skepticism in Ethics (1989).
* [[Robert C. Solomon|Solomon, R.C.]], ''Morality and the Good Life: An Introduction to Ethics Through Classical Sources'', New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1984.
* Vendemiati, Aldo, ''In the First Person, An Outline of General Ethics'', Rome, Urbaniana University Press, 2004.
*John Paul II, Encyclical Letter [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_06081993_veritatis-splendor_en.html ''Veritatis Splendor''], 6-8-1993.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Wikiversity}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Ethics}}
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/manuscript.php?postid=43789 An Introduction to Ethics] by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* {{Sep entry|ethics|Ethics}}{{Dead link|date=July 2010}}
* [http://www.ditext.com/frankena/ethics.html ''Ethics]'', 2d ed., 1973. by [[William Frankena]]
* [http://www.open2.net/ethicsbites/index.html Ethics Bites] Open University podcast series podcast exploring ethical dilemmas in everyday life.
* [http://www.ditext.com/ross/right.html 'The Right and the Good''] (1930) by [[W. D. Ross]]
* [http://ethics.sandiego.edu/LMH/E2/Glossary.asp University of San Diego - Ethics glossary] Useful terms in ethics discussions
* [http://www.thehastingscenter.org The Hastings Center] An independent, nonpartisan, and nonprofit bioethics research institute founded in 1969 to address fundamental ethical issues in the areas of health, medicine, and the environment
* [http://bioethics.georgetown.edu/nrc/ National Reference Center for Bioethics Literature] World's largest library for ethical issues in medicine and biomedical research
* [http://www.ethical-democracy.org Ethics and Democracy]
* [http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/by/1985----.htm Ethics] entry in Encyclopædia Britannica by [[Peter Singer]]
* [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Ethics The Philosophy of Ethics] on Philosophy Archive
* [http://ethics.sandiego.edu/ Ethics updates] Provides resources and updates on current literature, both popular and professional, that relate to ethics.

{{Philosophy topics}}
{{Ethics}}

[[Category:Ethics| ]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
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[[Category:Greek loanwords]]
[[Category:Axiology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of life]]

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