View source for Food packaging

{{Short description|Enclosure and protection of nutritional substances for distribution and sale}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}

[[File:Testing MAP for carrots.jpg|thumb|upright|Testing [[modified atmosphere]] in a [[plastic bag]] of carrots]]

'''Food packaging''' is a [[packaging and labeling|packaging]] system specifically designed for [[food]] and represents one of the most important aspects among the processes involved in the food industry, as it provides protection from chemical, biological and physical alterations.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=Kenneth |last2=Bugusu |first2=Betty |title=Food Packaging?Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues |journal=[[Journal of Food Science]] |date=April 2007 |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=R39–R55 |doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00301.x|pmid=17995809 |s2cid=12127364 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The main goal of food packaging is to provide a practical means of protecting and delivering food goods at a reasonable cost while meeting the needs and expectations of both consumers and industries.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Thomas J. |title=Food Packaging |journal=Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology |date=2015 |doi=10.1002/0471238961.0615150402181504.a01.pub3}}</ref> Additionally, current trends like [[sustainability]], [[environmental impact]] reduction, and [[Shelf life|shelf-life]] extension have gradually become among the most important aspects in designing a packaging system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Licciardello |first1=Fabio |title=Packaging, blessing in disguise. Review on its diverse contribution to food sustainability |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=4 May 2017 |volume=65 |issue=65 |pages=32–39 |doi=10.1016/J.TIFS.2017.05.003|hdl=11380/1163967 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==History==
Packaging of food products has seen a vast transformation in technology usage and application from the [[Stone Age]] to the [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]]:

7000 BC: The adoption of pottery and glass which saw industrialization around 1500 BC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00001524/00001|title=A Brief History of Packaging|website=ufdc.ufl.edu|access-date=2019-05-22}}</ref>

1700s: The first manufacturing production of tinplate was introduced in England (1699) and in France (1720). Afterwards, the Dutch navy start to use such packaging to prolong the preservation of food products.<ref name=Robertson1 />

1804: Nicolas Appert, in response to inquiries into extending the shelf life of food for the French Army, employed glass bottles along with thermal food treatment. Glass has been replaced by metal cans in this application.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of food science and technology.|date=2000|publisher=Wiley|last1=Francis |first1=Frederick John |isbn=0471192856|edition= 2nd.|location=New York|oclc=41143092}}</ref> However, there is still an ongoing debate about who first introduced the use of tinplates as food packaging.<ref name=Robertson1 />

1870: The use of paper board was launched and corrugated materials patented.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bi|first=Liu Ju|date=June 2012|title=Research on Corrugated Cardboard and its Application|journal=Advanced Materials Research|volume=535-537|pages=2171–2176|doi=10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.535-537.2171|s2cid=110373839|issn=1662-8985}}</ref>

1880s: First cereal packaged in a folding box by Quaker Oats.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The total package : the evolution and secret meanings of boxes, bottles, cans, and tubes|last=Hine, Thomas, 1947-|date=1995|publisher=Little, Brown|isbn=0316364800|edition=1st|location=Boston|oclc=31288019|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/totalpackageevol00hine}}</ref>

1890s: The crown cap for glass bottles was patented by William Painter.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Packaging source book.|last=Opie, Robert, 1947-|date=1989|publisher=Macdonald Orbis|isbn=0356176657|oclc=19776457}}</ref>

1950s: The [[bag-in-box]] system was invented by American chemist William R. Scholle – initially for acid liquids, but quickly also used for food liquids.

1960s: Development of the two-piece drawn and wall-ironed{{explain|date=March 2023}} metal cans in the US, along with the ring-pull opener and the Tetra Brik Aseptic carton package.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arvanitoyannis|first=IS|date=2005|title=Food packaging technology. Edited by R Coles, D McDowell and MJ Kirwan. Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press, Oxford, 2003. 346 pp ISBN 0-8493-9788-X|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|volume=85|issue=6|pages=1072|doi=10.1002/jsfa.2089|bibcode=2005JSFA...85.1072A |issn=0022-5142}}</ref>

1970s: The barcode system was introduced in the retail and manufacturing industry. PET plastic blow-mold bottle technology, which is widely used in the beverage industry, was introduced.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Arvanitoyannis|first=Is|date=2005-04-30|title=Food packaging technology. Edited by R Coles, D McDowell and MJ Kirwan. Blackwell Publishing, CRC Press, Oxford, 2003. 346 pp ISBN 0-849-39788-X|journal=Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture|volume=85|issue=6|pages=1072|doi=10.1002/jsfa.2089|bibcode=2005JSFA...85.1072A |issn=0022-5142}}</ref>

1990s: The application of digital printing on food packages became widely adopted.

Plastic packaging saw its inaugural use during [[World War II]], even though materials employed in its manufacturing (such as cellulose nitrate, styrene and vinyl chloride) were discovered in the 1800s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Risch|first=Sara J.|date=2009-09-23|title=Food Packaging History and Innovations|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=57|issue=18|pages=8089–8092|doi=10.1021/jf900040r|pmid=19719135|issn=0021-8561}}</ref>

==Functions==
Packaging and package's labeling have several objectives:<ref>{{cite conference| first = L| last = Bix| author2=Nora Rifon| author3=Hugh Lockhart| author4=Javier de la Fuente| title = The Packaging Matrix: Linking Package Design Criteria to the Marketing Mix| publisher = IDS Packaging| year = 2003| url = http://www.idspackaging.com/Common/Paper/Paper_47/PdfImge.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217145338/http://www.idspackaging.com/Common/Paper/Paper_47/PdfImge.pdf| archive-date=2008-12-17| access-date = 11 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| last =Marsh| first =K| title =Food Packaging—Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues| journal =Journal of Food Science| date =2007| pages =39–54| volume =72| issue =3| doi =10.1111/j.1750-3841.2007.00301.x| pmid =17995809| s2cid =12127364| url =http://ift.org/knowledge-center/read-ift-publications/science-reports/scientific-status-summaries/~/media/Knowledge%20Center/Science%20Reports/Scientific%20Status%20Summaries/FoodPackagingEnviron_0407.pdf| access-date =21 September 2018| archive-date =3 November 2021| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20211103045123/https://www.ift.org/sitecore/service/notfound.aspx| url-status =dead}}</ref>
* Physical protection - The food enclosed in the package may require protection from [[Shock (mechanics)|shock]], [[vibration]], compression, [[temperature]], bacteria, etc.
* Barrier protection - A barrier from [[oxygen]], [[water vapor]], dust, etc., is often required. [[Permeation]] is a critical factor in design. Keeping the contents clean, fresh, and safe for the intended [[shelf life]] is a primary function. [[Modified atmosphere]]s or controlled atmospheres are also maintained in some food packages. Some packages contain [[desiccant]]s, [[oxygen absorber]]s, or [[ethylene]] absorbers to help extend shelf life.
* Containment or agglomeration - Small items are typically grouped together in one package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, [[Agglomerated food powder|powders]], and [[granular material]]s need containment.
* Information transmission - Packages and [[label]]s communicate how to use, transport, [[recycling|recycle]], or dispose of the package or product.  Some types of information are [[Mandatory labelling|required]] by governments.
* Marketing - The packaging and [[label]]s can be used by [[marketing|marketers]] to encourage potential buyers to purchase the product.  Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consider the contents. Package design has been an important and constantly evolving phenomenon for several decades. [[Marketing communications]] and [[graphic design]] are applied to the surface of the package and (in many cases) also to the [[point of sale display]]. The colour of the package plays a significant role in evoking emotions that persuade the consumer to make the purchase.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-product-packaging-marketing-648.html|title=Importance of Product Packaging in Marketing}}</ref>
* Security - Packaging can play an important role in reducing the [[security]] risks of shipment.  Packages can be made with improved [[tamper resistance]] to deter tampering, and can also have [[tamper-evident]] features to help indicate tampering. Packages can be engineered to help reduce the risks of [[package pilferage]]; some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer-indicating seals.  Packages may include [[authentication]] seals to help indicate that the package and contents are not [[counterfeit]]. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye packs, [[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] tags, or [[electronic article surveillance]] tags, that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Using packaging in this way is a means of [[retail loss prevention]].
* Convenience - Packages can have features which add convenience in [[Distribution (business)|distribution]], handling, stacking, display, sale, opening, reclosing, use, and [[reusable packaging|reuse]].
* Portion control - Single-serving packaging has a precise amount of contents to control usage. Bulk commodities (such as salt) can be divided into packages that are a more suitable size for individual households. It also aids the control of inventory: selling sealed one-liter bottles of milk, rather than having people bring their own bottles to fill themselves.

==Types==
Packaging design may vary largely depending on the function that are fashioned into different types of packages and containers, and depending on the food products and their function, such as:<ref>{{cite web|last1=Shaw|first1=Randy|title=Food Packaging: 9 Types and Differences Explained|url=http://www.assemblies.com/food-packaging-9-types-and-differences-explained/|publisher=Assemblies Unlimited|access-date=19 June 2015|date=2013-02-16}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Packaging
! Type
! Foods
! Materials
|-
| [[Aseptic processing|Aseptic packaging]]
| Primary
| Liquid whole [[Egg (food)|eggs]] or [[dairy]] products
| [[Polymer]]s, [[Multilayered packaging|multi-layer packaging]]
|-
| [[Trays]]
| Primary
| Portion of [[fish as food|fish]], meat, [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]], sweets and [[convenience food]]s
| [[Polymer]]s, [[Cardboard box|cardboards]], [[biopolymer]]s
|-
| Bags
| Primary
| [[Potato chip]]s, apples, [[dried fruit]]s, rice, [[snack]]s
| [[Metallized plastic polyester|Metallized polymers]], [[polymer]]s, [[Multilayered packaging|multi-layer packaging]]
|-
| [[Tin can|Can]]s
| Primary
| Can of [[tomato]] soup, beans, mais, [[Salmon as food|salmon]], [[tuna]], and [[prawn]]s
| [[Aluminium foil|Aluminum]], [[Steel and tin cans|tin]], [[Stainless steel|stainless-steel]]
|-
| [[Carton]]s
| Primary
| Carton of [[Egg (food)|eggs]], milk, and fruit juice
| [[Multilayered packaging|Multi-layer packaging]], [[coated paper]]
|-
| [[Packaging and labeling|Flexible packaging]]
| Primary
| Bagged [[salad]], [[potato chip]]s, [[Candy|sweets and candies]]
| [[Polymer]], [[biopolymer]]
|-
| [[Box]]es
| Secondary
| box of cereal cartons, frozen pizzas
| [[Cardboard box|Cardboards]]
|-
| [[Pallet]]s
| Tertiary
| A series of boxes on a single pallet used to transport from the manufacturing plant to a [[distribution center]]
| [[Corrugated fiberboard|Corrugated cardboard]], [[wooden pallet]]
|-
| [[Packaging and labeling|Wrappers]]
| Tertiary
| Used to wrap the [[box]]es on the [[pallet]] for transport
| [[Polymer]], [[Multilayered packaging|multi-layer packaging]]
|}
Since almost all food products is packed in some fashion, food packaging is both fundamental and pervasive.<ref name=Robertson2>{{Cite Q|Q112814045}}</ref> Additionally, by enabling the creation and standardization of brands, it provides the opportunity to realized significant advertising, extensive distribution, and mass merchandising.<ref name=Robertson2 /> Therefore, a distinction between the various type (or level) of packaging needs to be made.

===Primary packaging===
Primary packaging is directly in contact with the food products, creating the ideal headspace for them while providing protection from external alteration. Additionally, primary packaging, also known as retail packaging or consumer units, is responsible for the marketing aspects of food packaging.<ref name=Robertson1>{{Cite Q|Q112797468}}</ref> Typically, the packaging materials used in the primary level include cardboard cartons, plastic trays, glass bottle and multi-layerd structure ([[Tetra Pak]]).

===Secondary packaging===
Secondary packaging contains a number of primary packages into one box being made usually out of [[Corrugated fiberboard|corrugated cardboard]]. Thus, the secondary level is a physical distribution carrier for the primary packages, making more easy to handle during the transportation. Occasionally it can be used as an aid in retail outlets or [[Supermarket|super market]] for the display of basic goods.<ref name=Robertson1 />

===Tertiary packaging===
The outermost package, known as tertiary packaging, makes it easier to handle, store, and distribute both primary and secondary packages in bulk safely, providing further protection of the product while creating an easy way to transport large quantities of materials. The most familiar type of tertiary packaging comprises a wrapped pallet of corrugated case.<ref>{{cite book  |last1=Khan |first1=Amaltas |last2=Tandon |first2=Puneet |chapter= Closing the Loop: 'Systems Perspective' for the Design of Food Packaging to Facilitate Material Recovery|title= Research into Design for Communities, Volume 2|series= Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies|date=2017 |volume=66 |pages=349–359 |doi=10.1007/978-981-10-3521-0_30|isbn=978-981-10-3520-3 }}</ref>

===Gallery===
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Cake mix in plastic packet photo.JPG|Bagged cake mix
File:Biscuit components.jpg|Biscuit components: [[plastic bottle]]s, [[paper bag]]
File:JNR Vegetable-oil Container.jpg|Container for bulk vegetable oil
File:Freezer (5194456668).jpg|Frozen processed food freezer in [[supermarket]]
File:A 4 Litre Cask of Australian White Wine.jpg|[[Bag in box]]; [[box wine]]
File:Dg milk containers.jpg|Glass milk bottle and paperboard milk carton
File:Pyramidal silk tea bag.jpg|Silk tea bag
File:Sacos de café, Casa do Bandeirante 1.JPG|Coffee beans in burlap bags, [[gunny sack]]s
File:Boy Scouts Pick Fruit For Jam- Life on a Fruit-picking Camp Near Cambridge, England, UK, 1943 D16205.jpg|Bushel baskets of fruit
File:English breakfast tea tin.jpg|Tea tin, can with removable cover
File:USMC-03767.jpg|[[Folding carton]]s of cereal
File:Yoohoo-boxes.jpg|Drink boxes
File:Food and packaging.jpg|Packaged apples
File:HK Westwood Wellcome Shop packaged iced Seafood 烏頭魚 mullet fish April-2012.jpg|Fresh fish in plastic shrink-wrapped tray
File:Boneless Pork Loin Chops-01.jpg|Shrink-wrapped frozen pork
File:Meal, Ready-To-Eat, Individual (MRE) Vegetable Lasagna Vegetarian and Beef Ravioli 001.jpg|A pair of [[Meal, Ready-to-Eat]] (MRE) [[field ration]]s packaged in [[retort pouch]]es
File:Typical Polish set of spices.jpg|Condiments and spices
File:Can(Easy Open Can).JPG|[[Aluminum can]] with an easy-open, full pull-out end
File:Dip & Squeeze ketchup.jpg|A [[Dip & Squeeze]] ketchup container
</gallery>

==Packaging machines==
A choice of packaging machinery requires consideration of technical capabilities, labor requirements, worker safety, [[maintainability]], serviceability, [[reliability engineering|reliability]], ability to integrate into the packaging line, capital cost, floorspace, flexibility (change-over, materials, etc.), energy usage, [[Quality (business)|quality]] of outgoing packages, qualifications (for food, pharmaceuticals, etc.), throughput, efficiency, productivity, and [[ergonomics]], at a minimum.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Claudio|first=Luz|date=2012|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=120|issue=6|pages=A232–A237|jstor=41549064|doi=10.1289/ehp.120-a232|pmid=22659036|pmc=3385451|title=Our Food: Packaging & Public Health}}</ref>

Packaging machines may be of the following general types:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Autocoding]]  label and date verification
* [[Blister pack|Blister]], skin and  [[Vacuum packing|vacuum packaging]]  machines
* Capping, over-capping, lidding, closing, seaming and sealing machines
* [[Cartoning machines]]
* Case and tray forming, packing, unpacking, closing and sealing Machines
* [[Check weigher|Check weighing machines]]
* Cleaning, sterilizing, cooling and drying machines
* Conveying and accumulating machines
* Feeding, orienting, and placing machines
* Filling machines for liquid and powdered products
* Package filling and closing Machines
* [[Vertical form fill sealing machine|Form, fill and seal machines]]
* [[Check weigher|Inspecting, detecting and checkweighing machines]]
* [[Pallet]]izing, depalletizing, and pallet unitizing machines
* Labeling, marking, and other product identification machines
* Wrapping machines 
* Converting machines
{{div col end}}

<gallery mode="packed">
File:Factory Automation Robotics Palettizing Bread.jpg|Automated [[palletizer]] of bread with industrial [[KUKA]] robots 
File:SSF Costco bakery pastry packaging line.JPG|Shrink-wrapping trays of bakery goods
File:Sunwell fish packing pumpable slurry ice.JPG|Pumping slurry ice onto fresh fish
File:Remplisseuse bag in box.JPG|Filling machinery for [[bag-in-box]]
</gallery>

==Reduction of food packaging==
Reduced packaging and [[sustainable packaging]] are becoming more frequent, although excessive [[overpackaging]] is still common.  The motivations can be government regulations, consumer pressure, retailer pressure, and cost control. Reduced packaging often saves packaging costs.
In the UK, a [[Local Government Association]] survey produced by the British Market Research Bureau compared a range of outlets to buy 29 common food items, and found that small local retailers and [[Street market|market traders]] "produced less packaging and more that could be recycled than the larger [[supermarkets]]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kentonline.co.uk:6200/kol08/article/default.asp?article_id=42399|title=Farmer markets better at reducing waste}}</ref>

[[File:Optimum Packaging Design chart.png|thumb|Optimum packaging design chart]]
In the last decades, the growing demand from the consumers and governments for more sustainable and eco-friendly packaging design has driven the food industry to re-design and propose alternative packaging solutions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alizadeh-Sani |first1=Mahmood |last2=Mohammadian |first2=Esmail |last3=McClements |first3=David Julian |title=Eco-friendly active packaging consisting of nanostructured biopolymer matrix reinforced with TiO2 and essential oil: Application for preservation of refrigerated meat |journal=Food Chemistry |date=August 2020 |volume=322 |pages=126782 |doi=10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2020.126782|pmid=32305879 |s2cid=216029128 }}</ref> However, in designing a brand new packaging system, several variables need to be taken in consideration. As shown in the optimum packaging design chart, an ideal packaging design should only use the right amount of the appropriate materials to provide the desired performance for a specific product.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pereira |first1=L. |last2=Mafalda |first2=R. |last3=Marconcini |first3=J. M. |last4=Mantovani |first4=G. L. |title=ICoRD'15 – Research into Design Across Boundaries Volume 2 |chapter=The Use of Sugarcane Bagasse-Based Green Materials for Sustainable Packaging Design |series=Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies |date=2015 |volume=35 |pages=113–123 |doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2229-3_10|isbn=978-81-322-2228-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mahalik |first1=Nitaigour P. |last2=Nambiar |first2=Arun N. |title=Trends in food packaging and manufacturing systems and technology |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=March 2010 |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=117–128 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2009.12.006}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jia‐Wei |last2=Ruiz‐Garcia |first2=Luis |last3=Qian |first3=Jian‐Ping |last4=Yang |first4=Xin‐Ting |title=Food Packaging: A Comprehensive Review and Future Trends |journal=[[Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety]] |date=2018 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=860–877 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12343}}</ref>

Food packaging is often necessary or even essential for protecting food, keeping it safe and thus preventing substantial food losses. However, food packaging today is strongly associated with both environmental risks and health risks for consumers. To help packaging professionals address this challenge, a Responsible food packaging platform (FitNESS Food Packaging)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fitness-foodpackaging.com/about-fitness |title=About the FitNESS Project |website=fitness-foodpackaging.com}}</ref> was created in 2017 by 11 European partners, to provide both general and in-depth training courses on the design of responsible food packaging.<ref name=ErasmusProject>{{Cite web |url=https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/projects/search/details/2021-1-FR01-KA220-HED-000023509 |title=Food PackagIng open courseware for higher Education and Staff of companieS 2.0 |website=europa.eu |date=2021}}</ref> Developed with funding from the European Union [[Erasmus+]] program, this platform includes learning to optimise many sometimes contradictory criteria across all aspects of food packaging from its production and use through to its reuse, recycling, and disposal.<ref name=ErasmusProject/>

==End-of-use==
*[[Plastic]]: [[Landfill]]ing, [[incineration|burning]], and recycling are all alternatives for plastic packaging at the end of their shelf-life. However, improper disposal and handling lead to higher percentage of [[plastic waste]], which can pollute the environment in a wide spectrum of scenarios. The packaging sector accounts for 40.5% of all plastic produced in Europe, which represents the largest sector in food industry.<ref name=Zhu >{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Zicheng |last2=Liu |first2=Wei |last3=Ye |first3=Songhe |last4=Batista |first4=Luciano |title=Packaging design for the circular economy: A systematic review |journal=Sustainable Production and Consumption |date=July 2022 |volume=32 |pages=817–832 |doi=10.1016/j.spc.2022.06.005|s2cid=249363144 |doi-access=free }}</ref> However, the recycling of such wastege is at a critical low level of roughly 35%. Moreover, it has been estimated that over 20% of the plastic packaging does not reach any recycling process.<ref name=Khan />
*[[Bioplastic]]: also known as biodegradable polymer or biopolymer, are usually made from renewable feedstock resources like corn, [[Potato|potatoes]], [[wood pulp]] and [[sugarcane]], as well as from renewable natural resources of different kind.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Xianhui |last2=Wang |first2=Ying |last3=Chen |first3=Xiaowen |last4=Yu |first4=Xinbin |last5=Li |first5=Wei |last6=Zhang |first6=Shuyang |last7=Meng |first7=Xianzhi |last8=Zhao |first8=Zhi-Min |last9=Dong |first9=Tao |last10=Anderson |first10=Alexander |last11=Aiyedun |first11=Antony |last12=Li |first12=Yanfei |last13=Webb |first13=Erin |last14=Wu |first14=Zili |last15=Kunc |first15=Vlastimil |last16=Ragauskas |first16=Arthur |last17=Ozcan |first17=Soydan |last18=Zhu |first18=Hongli |title=Sustainable bioplastics derived from renewable natural resources for food packaging |journal=[[Matter (journal)|Matter]] |date=2023 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=97–127 |doi=10.1016/j.matt.2022.11.006 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Typical end-of-life options include the composting or the environmental degradation of bioplastics, which result in resource loss and CO<sub>2</sub> production. Complete degradation is also only achievable under rigorous conditions that are infrequently offered by the company. Additionally, some bioplastics are processed similarly to their traditional, fossil-based counterparts, which, if improperly sorted, might cause harmful interferences in other materials' recycling processes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fredi |first1=Giulia |last2=Dorigato |first2=Andrea |title=Recycling of bioplastic waste: A review |journal=Advanced Industrial and Engineering Polymer Research |date=July 2021 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=159–177 |doi=10.1016/j.aiepr.2021.06.006|s2cid=237852939 |doi-access=free |hdl=11572/336675 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
*Paper, paperboard, and corrugated board: are composed of cellulosic fibers bonded together to form a flexible structure. These packaging materials have a long tradition as the ideal solutions for storing dry foods (such as flour, rice, and pasta) as well as being used as secondary or tertiary packaging. Paper and cardboard are often collected separately for recycling; however, some difficulties are faced in the case of the presence of a coating (e.g., plastic or aluminum) or contamination due to food residues. Alternative end-of-life options include incineration and landfill. In theory, paper and board packaging is compostable, but persistent chemicals (like PFAS) may be dispersed in the environment through this practice, thus limiting the potential benefits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soroudi |first1=Azadeh |last2=Jakubowicz |first2=Ignacy |title=Recycling of bioplastics, their blends and biocomposites: A review |journal=European Polymer Journal |date=October 2013 |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=2839–2858 |doi=10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2013.07.025}}</ref>
*[[Aluminum can|Metal-based packaging]] can endure high temperatures and can provides outstanding gas, light, and aromas barriers, leading to a very competitive solutions in a broad range of application. Direct food preservation in the packaging was made possible with the development of the canning method.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Deshwal |first1=Gaurav Kr. |last2=Panjagari |first2=Narender Raju |title=Review on metal packaging: materials, forms, food applications, safety and recyclability |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |date=July 2020 |volume=57 |issue=7 |pages=2377–2392 |doi=10.1007/S13197-019-04172-Z|pmid=32549588 |pmc=7270472 }}</ref> Coatings, whether organic or inorganic, may lessen the interactions between metal and food. However, it was discovered that many of the chemicals in these coatings migrated into food. The end-of-life alternatives for metal food packaging differ depending on its usage: for example cans and lids can be broken down and recycled multiple times.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al Mahmood |first1=Abdullah |last2=Hossain |first2=Rumana |last3=Bhattacharyya |first3=Saroj |last4=Sahajwalla |first4=Veena |title=Recycling of polymer laminated aluminum packaging (PLAP) materials into carbonaceous metallic microparticles |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |date=1 October 2020 |volume=269 |pages=122157 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122157|s2cid=219522693 |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_68141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
*[[Glass]]: is an inorganic packaging that has been used for storing food and beverages. Nowadays, soda-lime glass is the commonly used variation manufactured from raw materials such as soda ash, limestone, and metal. Due to the structural characteristics of glass, the risk of migration into the food is very limited. Glass is incredibly chemically stable and durable when handled carefully (due to its fragile nature).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larsen |first1=Anna W. |last2=Merrild |first2=Hanna |last3=Christensen |first3=Thomas H. |title=Recycling of glass: accounting of greenhouse gases and global warming contributions |journal=Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy |date=November 2009 |volume=27 |issue=8 |pages=754–762 |doi=10.1177/0734242X09342148|pmid=19710108 |s2cid=37567386 }}</ref> Therefore, this packaging material is an ideal candidate for repeated use, due to these characteristics. Glass can also be recycled multiple times without losing any quality properties.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andreola |first1=Fernanda |last2=Barbieri |first2=Luisa |last3=Lancellotti |first3=Isabella |last4=Leonelli |first4=Cristina |last5=Manfredini |first5=Tiziano |title=Recycling of industrial wastes in ceramic manufacturing: State of art and glass case studies |journal=Ceramics International |date=September 2016 |volume=42 |issue=12 |pages=13333–13338 |doi=10.1016/J.CERAMINT.2016.05.205}}</ref>
*Multi-layer packaging: in the food and beverage business, packaging composed of numerous layers of various materials is commonly referred to as multi-layer or multi-material packaging. In many countries, multi-material food packaging is frequently burned or disposed of landfills.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} Nevertheless, some areas are actively developing separate collections and efficient sorting processes for fiber-based multi-material packaging, such as beverage cartons. On the other hand, multi-layer packaging composed of aluminum and plastic barrier, cannot currently be recycled in an efficient way, and must undergo chemical treatment to be disposed of correctly. In light of these considerations, it is clear how, despite being the state-of-the-art in food packaging application, multi-layer packaging poses a great challenge when considering its end-of-life.<ref name="Emerging materials and technologies">{{cite journal |last1=Alias |first1=A.R. |last2=Wan |first2=M. Khairul |last3=Sarbon |first3=N.M. |title=Emerging materials and technologies of multi-layer film for food packaging application: A review |journal=Food Control |date=June 2022 |volume=136 |pages=108875 |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108875|s2cid=246593505 }}</ref> An exception is the case of multi-layer packaging consisting of several layers of the same material (or being part of the same category): such solutions in many cases allow for outstanding performance and, at the same time, allow for an easier recycling.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soares |first1=Camila Távora de Mello |last2=Ek |first2=Monica |last3=Östmark |first3=Emma |last4=Gällstedt |first4=Mikael |last5=Karlsson |first5=Sigbritt |title=Recycling of multi-material multilayer plastic packaging: Current trends and future scenarios |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=January 2022 |volume=176 |pages=105905 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105905|s2cid=244187743 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Recycling of food packaging===
{{Main|Recycling#Rinsing}}
Food packaging is created through the use of a wide variety of plastics and metals, papers, and glass materials. Recycling these products differs from the act of literally reusing them because the recycling process has its own algorithm which includes collecting, sourcing, processing, manufacturing and marketing these products. According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency of the United States]], the recycling rate has been steadily on the rise, with data reporting that in 2018, the recycling rate of generated packaging and containers was 53.9 percent.<ref name=":2" /> 

The product's quality and safety are the package's most important responsibility. However, there have been growing demands for packaging to be designed, manufactured, consumed, and recycled in a more sustainable fashion due to the increasing pollution connected with packaging and [[food waste]]s. It has been estimated that only 10.33% of all [[municipal solid waste]] (MSW), which makes up to 30.3% of the total waste, is recycled into new products globally.<ref name=Khan >{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Amaltas |last2=Tandon |first2=Puneet |title=Realizing the End-of-life Considerations in the Design of Food Packaging |journal=Journal of Packaging Technology and Research |date=October 2018 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=251–263 |doi=10.1007/s41783-018-0041-6|s2cid=169735701 }}</ref><br>
However, depending on the level of packaging and the materials that are being used during their manufacturing, the end-of-life of a package may differ completely. Despite the fact that a recycling process is usually the desired path, lots of complications may lead to less sustainable destines.<ref name=Zhu />

==Trends in food packaging==
{{Main|Active packaging}}
*Numerous reports made by industry associations agree that use of smart indicators will increase. There are a number of different indicators with different benefits for food producers, consumers and [[retailer]]s.
*Temperature recorders are used to monitor products shipped in a [[cold chain]] and to help validate the cold chain. Digital [[temperature data logger]]s measure and record the temperature history of food shipments. They sometimes have temperatures displayed on the indicator or have other outputs (lights, etc.): the data from a shipment can be downloaded (cable, RFID, etc.) to a computer for further analysis. These help identify if there has been temperature abuse of products and can help determine the remaining [[shelf life]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meyers |first= T |date=June 2007 |title=RFID Shelf-life Monitoring Helps Resolve Disputes|journal=RFID Journal |url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3357/1/128/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511212848/http://www.rfidjournal.com/article/articleview/3357/1/128/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 May 2008 }}</ref> They can also help determine the time of temperature extremes during shipment, so that corrective measures can be taken.
*[[Time temperature indicator]]s integrate the [[time]] and [[temperature]] experienced by the indicator and adjacent foods. Some use chemical reactions that result in a color change, while others use the migration of a dye through a filter media. To the degree that these physical changes in the indicator match the degradation rate of the food, the indicator can help indicate probable food degradation.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Riva| first1 = Marco| last2 = Piergiovanni, Schiraldi| title =Performances of time-temperature indicators in the study of temperature exposure of packaged fresh foods| journal = Packaging Technology and Science| volume = 14| issue = 1| pages = 1–39| date = January 2001| doi = 10.1002/pts.521| first2 = Luciano| last3 = Schiraldi| first3 = Alberto | s2cid = 108566613}}</ref>
*[[Radio frequency identification]] is applied to food packages for [[supply chain]] control. It has shown a significant benefit in allowing food producers and retailers to have full real time visibility of their supply chain.
*Plastic packaging being used is usually non-biodegradable due to possible interactions with the food. Also, biodegradable polymers often require special [[composting]] conditions to properly degrade. Normal sealed [[landfill]] conditions do not promote biodegradation. [[Biodegradable plastic]]s include biodegradable films and coatings synthesized from organic materials and microbial polymers. Some package materials are edible. For example, pharmaceuticals are sometimes in [[Capsule (pharmacy)|capsules]] made of [[gelatin]], [[starch]], [[potato]] or other materials. Newer [[bioplastics]], films and products are being developed.<ref>{{citation| title =EDIBLE COATINGS TO IMPROVE FOOD QUALITY AND FOOD SAFETY AND MINIMIZE PACKAGING COST| publisher =USDA| year =2011| url =http://www.reeis.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/0152515-edible-coatings-to-improve-food-quality-and-food-safety-and-minimize-packaging-cost.html| access-date =18 March 2013 }}</ref>
*There is an increasing development and production of food packaging materials containing substances and realizing systems intended to extend shelf life: [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>) emitters; [[antioxidant]]s (e.g. [[butylated hydroxytoluene]] (BHT), [[butylated hydroxyanisole]] (BHA), [[tocopherol]]s, [[hinokitiol]]); [[antimicrobial]] enzymes (e.g. [[lysozyme]]), [[polymer]]s (e.g. [[Polylysine|ε-polylysine]], [[chitosan]]) and [[nanoparticle]]s (e.g. [[silver]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[platinum]], [[titanium dioxide]], [[zinc oxide]], [[magnesium oxide]], organically modified nanoclays); [[bacteriocin]]s (e.g. [[nisin]], [[natamycin]]); and [[essential oil]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yildirim |first1=Selçuk |last2=Röcker |first2=Bettina |last3=Pettersen |first3=Marit Kvalvåg |last4=Nilsen-Nygaard |first4=Julie |last5=Ayhan |first5=Zehra |last6=Rutkaite |first6=Ramune |last7=Radusin |first7=Tanja |last8=Suminska |first8=Patrycja |last9=Marcos |first9=Begonya |last10=Coma |first10=Véronique |title=Active Packaging Applications for Food: Active packaging applications for food... |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |date=January 2018 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=165–199 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12322|pmid=33350066 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.12327/362 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=L. Brody |first1=Aaron |last2=Strupinsky |first2=E. P. |last3=Kline |first3=Lauri R. |title=Active Packaging for Food Applications |date=2001 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780367397289 |edition=1}}</ref>
*In the last decades, the use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and other variation of this technology has shown growing interest and application in the food packaging industry. The use of a specific gas mixture inside the packaging headspace has proven to be ideal to slow down the metabolic process of food product, thus prolonging the shelf-life of meat, fish, fruits and vegetables.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galić |first1=K. |last2=Ćurić |first2=D. |last3=Gabrić |first3=D. |title=Shelf Life of Packaged Bakery Goods—A Review |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=11 May 2009 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=405–426 |doi=10.1080/10408390802067878|pmid=19399669 |s2cid=36471832 }}</ref>
*The design of multi-layer packaging system has been recognized as the state-of-the-art in food packaging application for its versatility, processability and efficacy. Each layer can be made of different materials and provides a key functionality for the whole structure, such as improved mechanical properties, chemical stability, barrier properties and anti-microbial properties. However, the use of such complex structure significantly reduces its recyclability (except for a few cases).<ref name="Emerging materials and technologies"/>
*Recently, the application of protective coating on commercially available packaging materials (such as PET, PP, PLA cardboard or biopolymer) represents a potential solution to deal with the increasing environmental impact due to both food and [[packaging waste]].<ref name=Rovera >{{cite journal |last1=Rovera |first1=Cesare |last2=Ghaani |first2=Masoud |last3=Farris |first3=Stefano |title=Nano-inspired oxygen barrier coatings for food packaging applications: An overview |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=March 2020 |volume=97 |pages=210–220 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2020.01.024|hdl=2434/708174 |s2cid=214175106 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>  
*[[Barcode]]s have been used for decades in packaging many products. [[Data Matrix|2D barcodes]] used in [[autocoding]] are increasingly applied to food packaging to ensure that products are correctly packaged and date coded.
*The ability of a package to fully empty or dispense a viscous food is somewhat dependent on the [[surface energy]] of the inner walls of the container. The use of [[superhydrophobic]] surfaces is useful but can be further improved by using new lubricant-impregnated surfaces.<ref>{{cite journal| last =Smith| first =J D |author2=Rajeev Dhiman |author3=Sushant Anand |author4=Ernesto Reza-Garduno |author5=Robert E. Cohen |author6=Gareth H. McKinley |author7=Kripa K. Varanasi | title = Droplet mobility on lubricant-impregnated surfaces| journal = Soft Matter| volume =19| issue =6| pages = 1972–1980| date =2013| doi=10.1039/c2sm27032c| hdl =1721.1/79068 | bibcode =2013SMat....9.1772S | hdl-access =free}}</ref>

==Food packaging barriers==
{{Main| Permeation}}
[[File:Schematic representation fo the processes involved in the permeability across a packaging material.tif|thumb|Physical processes involved in the permeability of a gas molecule across a packaging material]]
A critical requirement in food packaging is represented by the barrier properties against the permeation of gases, water vapor, and aroma compounds of the packaging system. In fact, the chemical interactions between the products and the environment are the principal reasons for improper shelf-life and spoilage phenomena.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Zhenghui |last2=Rajabi-Abhari |first2=Araz |last3=Oh |first3=Kyudeok |last4=Yang |first4=Guihua |last5=Youn |first5=Hye Jung |last6=Lee |first6=Hak Lae |title=Improving the Barrier Properties of Packaging Paper by Polyvinyl Alcohol Based Polymer Coating—Effect of the Base Paper and Nanoclay |journal=Polymers |date=19 April 2021 |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1334 |doi=10.3390/polym13081334|pmid=33921733 |pmc=8072764 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Therefore, the evaluation of the gas exchange by means of the permeation of gas molecules is a crucial aspect in designing a product.

The permeation of a gas molecule through a packaging system is a physical process made up of three independent phenomena: the adsorption of the molecule to the packaging's outer surface; the diffusion of the molecule through the packaging's section; and the desorption in the internal headspace.<ref name=Arrieta /> Under the assumption of steady state condition, the physical processes involved in the permeation can be modeled by simple equations.<ref name="Mass Transfer of Gas and Solute Thr">{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Jung H. |last2=Scanlon |first2=Martin G. |title=Mass Transfer of Gas and Solute Through Packaging Materials |journal=Innovations in Food Packaging |date=2014 |pages=37–49 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-394601-0.00003-5|isbn=9780123946010 }}</ref> Particularly, the diffusion of a permeant's molecule is dependent to the concentration difference between the two sides of the packaging system, which acts as a driving force, thus creating a diffusive flux following the first [[Fick's laws of diffusion|Fick's law of diffusion]].<ref name=Robertson1/>

Furthermore, other assumptions are needed, such as the absence of chemical interaction between the penetrant and the packaging material and the fact that the diffusion flow must follow only one direction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chaix |first1=Estelle |last2=Couvert |first2=Olivier |last3=Guillaume |first3=Carole |last4=Gontard |first4=Nathalie |last5=Guillard |first5=Valerie |title=Predictive Microbiology Coupled with Gas (O 2 /CO 2 ) Transfer in Food/Packaging Systems: How to Develop an Efficient Decision Support Tool for Food Packaging Dimensioning: A decision support tool for map... |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |date=January 2015 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1111/1541-4337.12117|pmid=33401814 |doi-access= }}</ref> The adsorption/desorption processes of a permeant's molecule normally exhibit a linear dependency with the partial pressure gradient across the barrier layer while keeping the assumption of steady-state transport condition and exhibiting a concentration lower than the penetrant's maximum solubility, thereby adhering to [[Henry's law|Henry's law of solubility]].<ref>{{Cite Q|Q112841332}}</ref>

The type of permeant, the barrier layer's thickness, the specific permeabilities of the packaging films against gases or vapors, the packaging's permeable area, the temperature, and the pressure or concentration gradient between the barrier's interior and external sides can all have an impact on a system's permeability.<ref name=Siracusa1 >{{cite journal |last1=Siracusa |first1=Valentina |title=Food Packaging Permeability Behaviour: A Report |journal=International Journal of Polymer Science |date=2012 |volume=2012 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1155/2012/302029|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The gas exchange occurring between the packaging system and the external environment has a significant impact on the quality and safety of food products. Uncontrolled physico-chemical and biological processes such as oxidation of vitamins, excessive microbial growth, and spoilage of the packed food may lead to improper conditions inside the packaging headspace, hence reducing their shelf-life.<ref name=Robertson2 /> Therefore, the packaging system should be designed to create the ideal conditions for the selected product, avoiding excessive gas exchange.<ref name=Arrieta >{{cite journal |last1=Arrieta |first1=Marina Patricia |last2=Peponi |first2=Laura |last3=López |first3=Daniel |last4=López |first4=Juan |last5=Kenny |first5=José María |title=An overview of nanoparticles role in the improvement of barrier properties of bioplastics for food packaging applications |journal=Food Packaging |date=2017 |pages=391–424 |doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-804302-8.00012-1|isbn=9780128043028 }}</ref>

Among the permeants that could affect the organoleptic properties of food, oxygen and water vapor represent the most important ones. These permeants affect several bio-chemical processes in food products, such as ripening, degradation, hydration/dehydration, microbial growth, vitamins oxidation; they also have an impact on the organoleptic properties, hence causing off-flavours, excessive weight loss, textural changing and generally shortening the shelf life.<ref name=Rovera />

To quantify the barrier properties of a packaging system, both oxygen and water vapor permeation are commonly assessed by measuring the [[oxygen transmission rate]] (OTR) and [[water vapor transmission rate]] (WVTR), respectively.

===Oxygen barrier===
{{Main| Oxygen transmission rate}}
[[File:OTR_permeation_cell.jpg|thumb|Permeation cell setup for the measurement of the oxygen transmission rate]]
The oxygen transmission rate of a gas through the packaging is defined as the amount of oxygen permeating per unit of permeable area and unit of time in a packaging system considering standardized test conditions (23&nbsp;°C and 1 atm partial pressure difference). It is an effective tool to estimate the barrier properties of a certain material.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abdellatief |first1=Ayman |last2=Welt |first2=Bruce A. |title=Comparison of New Dynamic Accumulation Method for Measuring Oxygen Transmission Rate of Packaging against the Steady-State Method Described by ASTM D3985: DYNAMIC ACCUMULATION FOR OTR MEASUREMENT |journal=Packaging Technology and Science |date=August 2013 |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=281–288 |doi=10.1002/pts.1974|s2cid=137002813 }}</ref> The determination of the OTR is usually carried out by means of a steady-state and isostatic method, reported by the [[ASTM International|ASTM]] D 3985 or ASTM F 1307, containing respectively standardized protocol for the measurements of the OTR of several kind of packaging.<ref name="Mass Transfer of Gas and Solute Thr"/>

The typical instrumentation consists in a permeation cell composed by two distinct chambers separated by the tested material; one of the chambers is then filled with a carrier gas (e.g., [[nitrogen]]), while the other one with [[oxygen]], hence creating the necessary driving force to let the oxygen permeate across the barrier's material.

===Water vapor barrier===
{{Main| Moisture vapor transmission rate}}
[[File:WVTR_cups.jpg|thumb|Water vapor transmission rate measurement setup, consisting in a stainless-steel cups filled with water or a dessicant]]
Concurrently to the oxygen barrier property, the permeability of water vapor through a food packaging system should be minimized to effectively prevent physical and chemical changes connected to an excessive moisture content.<ref name=Siracusa1 /> The moisture barrier properties of a material can be assessed by measuring the water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), which can be defined as the amount of water vapor per unit of area and unit of time passing through the packaging film.<ref name=Arrieta/>

The WVTR measurements, like the OTR, adhere to the standards for standardized tests as outlined in the [[ASTM International|ASTM E96]] (standard methods for water vapor transmission of materials). An impermeable test dish (such as a stainless steel cup) and a test chamber where temperature and relative humidity (RH) can be adjusted in accordance with the standard specification, make up the basic instrumentation used in such tests.

===Other vapors===
Although both oxygen and water vapor represent the most studied permeants in food packaging application, other gases such as carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) have also great relevance in the preservation of food products. In fact, N<sub>2</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> have been employed in [[Modified atmosphere|modified atmosphere packaging]] (MAP) technology to establish the correct conditions inside the package's headspace to lessen food spoiling.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Yuchen |last2=Huang |first2=Jichao |last3=Sun |first3=Xiaobin |last4=Lu |first4=Qing |last5=Huang |first5=Ming |last6=Zhou |first6=Guanghong |title=Effect of normal and modified atmosphere packaging on shelf life of roast chicken meat |journal=Journal of Food Safety |date=October 2018 |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=e12493 |doi=10.1111/jfs.12493|s2cid=91640357 }}</ref>

==Food safety and public health==
{{Main| Food safety}}
It is critical to maintain food safety during processing,<ref>{{cite journal
 |last         = Hron
 |first        = J
 |author2      = T. Macák
 |author3      = A. Jindrova
 |journal      = Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis
 |volume       = LX
 |issue        = 2
 |pages        = 115–120
 |date         = 2012
 |doi          = 10.11118/actaun201260040115
 |title = Evaluation of economic efficiency of process improvement in food packaging
 |doi-access= free
 }}</ref> packaging, storage, [[logistics]] (including [[cold chain]]), sale, and use. Conformance to applicable regulations is mandatory.  Some are country specific such as the [[US Food and Drug Administration]] and the [[US Department of Agriculture]];  others are regional such as the [[European Food Safety Authority]]. Certification programs such as the [[Global Food Safety Initiative]] are sometimes used. Food packaging considerations may include: use of [[hazard analysis and critical control points]], [[verification and validation]] protocols, [[Good manufacturing practice]]s, use of an effective [[quality management system]], [[track and trace]] systems, and requirements for [[label]] content. Special [[food contact materials]] are used when the package is in direct contact with the food product. Depending on the packaging operation and the food, packaging machinery often needs specified daily wash-down and cleaning procedures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Regulation of the U.S. Food Processing Sector|url=https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/foodlaw/safe-408-608/foodprocessingregulation|publisher=NDSU|access-date=19 June 2015}}</ref>

Health risks of materials and chemicals that are used in food packaging need to be carefully controlled.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Geueke |first=Birgit |last2=Parkinson |first2=Lindsey V. |last3=Groh |first3=Ksenia J. |last4=Kassotis |first4=Christopher D. |last5=Maffini |first5=Maricel V. |last6=Martin |first6=Olwenn V. |last7=Zimmermann |first7=Lisa |last8=Scheringer |first8=Martin |last9=Muncke |first9=Jane |date=2024-09-17 |title=Evidence for widespread human exposure to food contact chemicals |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-024-00718-2 |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |language=en |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1038/s41370-024-00718-2 |issn=1559-064X}}</ref> [[Carcinogen]]s, [[toxic]] chemicals, [[mutagen]]s etc. need to be eliminated from food contact and potential migration into foods.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-26254989|title=Food packaging health risk 'unknown'|first=Pippa|last=Stephens|date=19 February 2014|newspaper=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 3385451 | pmid=22659036 | doi=10.1289/ehp.120-a232 | volume=120 | issue=6 | title=Our food: packaging & public health | year=2012 | journal=Environ. Health Perspect. | pages=A232–7 | last1 = Claudio | first1 = L}}</ref> Besides, the consumers need to be aware of certain chemical products that are packaged exactly like food products to attract them. Most of them have pictures of fruits and the containers also resemble food packages. However, they can get consumed by kids or careless adults and lead to poisoning.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Assessing the Role of Shape and Label in the Misleading Packaging of Food Imitating Products: From Empirical Evidence to Policy Recommendation|journal = Frontiers in Psychology|volume = 7|pages = 450|date=31 March 2016|pmc = 4814518|last1 = Basso|first1 = F.|last2 = Bouillé|first2 = J.|last3 = Le Goff|first3 = K.|last4 = Robert-Demontrond|first4 = P.|last5 = Oullier|first5 = O.|pmid = 27065919|doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00450|doi-access = free}}</ref>  [[Microplastics]] and [[nanoparticle]]s from plastic containers are an increasing concern. <ref>{{cite journal
 | last = Hussain
 | first = Kazi Albab
 | title =Assessing the Release of Microplastics and Nanoplastics from Plastic Containers and Reusable Food Pouches: Implications for Human Health
 | journal =Environmental Science and Technology
| publisher        =American Chemical Society
 | volume =57
| issue =26
 | pages =9782–9792
 | date =2023
| doi = 10.1021/acs.est.3c01942
 | url = https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.3c01942
| access-date = 1 February 2024
 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
 | last = Kajavi
 | first = M Z
 | title =Strategies for controlling release of plastic compounds into foodstuffs based on application of nanoparticles and its potential health issues
 | journal =Trends in Food Science and Technology
 | volume =90
| issue =
 | pages =1–12
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| doi = 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.05.009
 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0924224418309063
| access-date = 6 February 2024
 }}</ref>

===Manufacturing===
Packaging lines can have a variety of equipment types: integration of automated systems can be a challenge.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last= |first= |date=2023 |title=Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling |url=https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/containers-and-packaging-product-specific#C&POverview |journal=United States Environmental Protection Agency |volume= |pages= |doi= |s2cid=}}</ref> All aspects of food production, including packaging, are tightly controlled and have regulatory requirements. Uniformity, cleanliness and other requirements are needed to maintain [[Good Manufacturing Practice]]s.

Product safety management is vital. A complete [[Quality Management System]] must be in place. [[Hazard analysis and critical control points]] is one methodology which has been proven useful.{{cite news |url=http://www.foodsafetymagazine.com/magazine-archive1/december-2009january-2010/happy-50th-birthday-to-haccp-retrospective-and-prospective/ |first1=William H. |last1=Sperber |first2= Richard F. |last2=Stier. |title=Happy 50th Birthday to HACCP: Retrospective and Prospective |work=FoodSafety magazine|pages=42–46|date=December 2009|access-date=11 January 2015}} [[Verification and validation]] involves collecting documentary evidence of all aspects of compliance. Quality assurance extends beyond the packaging operations through distribution and cold chain management.

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
{{Columns-list|colwidth=20em|
* {{annotated link|Codex Alimentarius}}
* {{annotated link|Dietary supplement}}
* {{annotated link|Disposable product}}
* {{annotated link|Edible packaging}}
* {{annotated link|Autocoding}}
* ''{{annotated link|Food and Bioprocess Technology}}''
* {{annotated link|Calabash#Africa|Calabash}}
* {{annotated link|disposable food packaging}}
* {{annotated link|Food fortification}}
* {{annotated link|Food grading}}
* {{annotated link|Food preservation}}
* {{annotated link|Food rheology}}
* {{annotated link|Food safety}}
* {{annotated link|List of food safety organisations}}
* {{annotated link|Food storage}}
* {{annotated link|Food storage container}}
* {{annotated link|Food waste}}
* {{annotated link|Food waste in the United Kingdom}}
* {{annotated link|ISO 22000}}
* {{annotated link|Nutraceutical}}
* {{annotated link|Packaging waste}}
* {{annotated link|Food labeling regulations}}
* {{annotated link|United Kingdom food labeling regulations}}
* {{annotated link|Packaging industry}}
* {{annotated link|Washdown}}
* {{annotated link|WikiCell}}
}}

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin}}
* Hans-Jürgen Bässler und Frank Lehmann : ''Containment Technology: Progress in the Pharmaceutical and Food Processing Industry.'' Springer, Berlin 2013, {{ISBN|978-3642392917}}
*Heldman, D.R. ed (2003). "Encyclopedia of Agricultural, Food, and Biological Engineering". New York: Marcel Dekker
*Potter, N.N. and J.H. Hotchkiss. (1995). "Food Science", Fifth Edition.New York: Chapman & Hall. pp.&nbsp;478–513.
* Robertson, G. L. (2013). "Food Packaging: Principles & Practice". CRC Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4398-6241-4}}
* Selke, S, (1994). "Packaging and the Environment". {{ISBN|1-56676-104-2}}
* Selke, S, (2004) "Plastics Packaging", {{ISBN|1-56990-372-7}}
* Soroka, W. (2009). "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology". Institute of Packaging Professionals. {{ISBN|1-930268-28-9}}
* Stillwell, E. J, (1991) "Packaging for the Environment", A. D. Little, 1991, {{ISBN|0-8144-5074-1}}
* Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-470-08704-6}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.ift.org/knowledge-center/read-ift-publications/science-reports/scientific-status-summaries/food-packaging.aspx|title=Food Packaging -- Roles, Materials, and Environmental Issues - IFT.org|website=www.ift.org|access-date=2018-12-03}}
*[https://journals.sbmu.ac.ir/afb/article/view/7127 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) for Food Packaging:] Application and Attempts towards Implementation

{{Food science}}
{{Packaging}}
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