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==Hunger and gender==
==Hunger and women suffering==
{{main|Food security#Gender and food security}}
{{main|Food security#Gender and food security}}
[[File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|''[[Migrant Mother]]'' by [[Dorothea Lange]] (1936).]]
[[File:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|thumb|''[[Migrant Mother]]'' by [[Dorothea Lange]] (1936).]]

Revision as of 12:40, 3 April 2013

This article is about the social and political aspects of hunger. For other uses, see Hunger (disambiguation).
The FAO's food price index reflects the changes in the average international price of food. The sharp rise in 2007/08 caused a global food crisis, with food riots in dozens of countries, and pushed well over a hundred million into extreme hunger. The sharp rise in 2010/11 contributed to the Arab Spring.

Hunger is the physical sensation of desiring food. When politicians, relief workers and social scientists talk about people suffering from hunger, they usually refer to those who are unable to eat sufficient food to meet their basic nutritional needs for sustained periods of time.

Throughout history, a large proportion of the world's population have often experienced severe hunger. In many cases this resulted from disruptions to the food supply caused by war, plagues or adverse weather changes. For the first few decades after World War II, technological progress and enhanced political cooperation suggested it might be possible to substantially reduce the number of people suffering from hunger. While progress had been uneven, by 2000 the threat of extreme hunger has subsided for a great many of the world's people.

Until 2006, the average international price of food had been largely stable for several decades. But in the closing months of 2006 it began to rise at a rapid rate. By 2008 the price of rice had more than tripled in some regions, which had an especially severe impact in developing countries. Food prices fell in early 2009, but then rose again to reach another record high in 2011, and have since then decreased slightly. The 2008 worldwide financial crisis further increased the number of people suffering from hunger, including dramatic increases even in advanced economies such as Great Britain, the Eurozone and the United States.

The Millennium Development Goals included a commitment to achieve a further 50% reduction in the proportion of the world's population suffering from extreme hunger by 2015. As of 2012, this target appears difficult to achieve, due in part to the lasting inflation in the price of food. However, in late 2012 the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) stated it is still possible to hit the target with sufficient effort. In 2012, the FAO estimated that 868 million people are undernourished (12% of the global population) and that malnutrition is a cause of death for more than 2.5 million children every year.

As a physical condition

Main article: Hunger (motivational state)

The physical sensation of hunger is related to contractions of the stomach muscles. These contractions, sometimes called hunger pangs once they become severe, are thought to be triggered by high concentrations of the hormone Ghrelin. The hormones Peptide YY and Leptin can have an opposite effect on the appetite, causing the sensation of being full. Ghrelin can be released if blood sugar levels get low; a condition which itself can result from going for long periods without eating. The stomach contractions resulting from hunger can be especially severe and painful in children and young adults. Hunger pangs can be made worse by irregular meals; people who can't afford to reliably eat more than once a day will sometimes refuse one-off additional meals even if they get the opportunity, as if they have the extra meal and then don't eat at around the same time on the next few days, they may suffer extra severe hunger pangs.[1] Older people may feel less violent stomach contractions when they get hungry, but still suffer the secondary effects resulting from low food intake: these include weakness, irritability and decreased concentration. Prolonged lack of adequate nutrition also causes increased susceptibility to disease and reduced ability for the body to self heal.[2][3]

Malnutrition, famine, starvation

  • Malnutrition is a general term for a condition caused by inadequate dietary intake and/or disease; it can occur in conjunction with both under and over consumption of calories and/or micronutrients.
  • Famine is a widespread scarcity of food that may apply to any fauna species; the phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality.
  • Starvation describes a "state of exhaustion of the body caused by lack of food." This state may precede death.

World statistics

Main article: Malnutrition

The annual FAO, WFP and IFAD The State of Food Insecurity in the World reports provide a statistical overview on hunger, and are usually considered the main reference in this regard (e.g., for the Millennium Development Goals). However, it is important to note that they have several caveats. First, undernourishment is defined solely in terms of dietary energy availability (i.e., disregarding micronutrients such as vitamins or minerals). Second, it uses the energy requirements for minimum activity levels as a benchmark, whereas many hungry people most likely face hard manual labour. Third, the numbers do not reflect short-term undernourishment (e.g., from food price shocks), unless they change long-term food consumption. In October 2012, the FAO published a report saying that their earlier 2009 estimate that one Billion people were suffering from chronic hunger was over stated, due to flawed methodology resulting from the pressure they were under to quickly estimate the effects of the financial crisis on hunger. They also said the number of people currently suffering from chronic hunger is close to 870 million.[4][5][6]

Year 1990/1992 1991/2001 2004/2006 2007/2009 2010/2012
Number (million) of undernourished people (global)[5] 1,000 919 898 867 868
Percentage of undernourished people (global)[5] 19 % 15 % 14 % 13 % 12 %

The fight against hunger

Unemployed men outside a soup kitchen in Chicago, 1931

Throughout history, the need to aid those suffering from hunger has been commonly, though not universally,[7] recognized. The philosopher Simone Weil has wrote that feeding the hungry when you have resources to do so is the most obvious of all human obligations. She says that as far back as Ancient Egypt, it was believed that people needed to show they had helped the hungry in order to justify themselves in the afterlife. Weil writes that Social progress is commonly held to be first of all "a transition to a state of human society in which people will not suffer from hunger." [8] Social historian Karl Polanyi wrote that before markets became the world's dominant form of economic organisation in the 19th century, most human societies would either starve all together or not at all, because communities would invariably share their food.[9]

According to Dr David Grigg, prior to the end of World War II, world hunger received little accademic or political attention, whereas after 1945 there has been an explosion of interest in the topic. [10] While some of the principles for avoiding famines had been laid out in the very first book of the Holy Bible, [11] they were not commonly understood. Even up to early modern times, a typical reaction among leaders to the occurrence of famine was bewilderment and confusion. From the first age of globalization which began in the 19th century, it became more common for people to consider problems like hunger in global terms. But as early globalization largely coincided with the high peak of influence for classical liberalism, there was relatively little call for world hunger to be addressed by politicians. [12] [13] In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the view that politicians ought not to intervene against hunger was increasingly challenged by campaigning journalists, with some academics and politicians also calling for or organizing intervention against world hunger, such as President Woodrow Wilson.[14] [15] [16] [10]

Politics of hunger

Martin Luther King (center) , one of many twentieth century political figures who considered it important to fight hunger: "When I die, don't build a monument to me. Don't bestow me degrees from great universities. Just clothe the naked. Say that I tried to house the homeless. Let people say that I tried to feed the hungry." [16]

After World War II, a new international politico-economic order came into being, which was later described as Embedded liberalism. For at least the first decade after the war, the United States, by far the period's most dominant national actor, was strongly supportive of efforts to tackle world hunger and to promote international development. It heavily funded the United Nation's development programmes, and later the efforts of other multilateral organisations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB). [17] [16] [10]

The newly established United Nations became a leading player in co-ordinating the global fight against hunger. The UN has three agencies that work to promote food security and agricultural development: the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programme (WFP) and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). FAO is the world’s agricultural knowledge agency, providing policy and technical assistance to developing countries to promote food security, nutrition and sustainable agricultural production, particularly in rural areas. WFP’s key mission is to deliver food into the hands of the hungry poor. The agency steps in during emergencies and uses food to aid recovery after emergencies. Its longer term approaches to hunger help the transition from recovery to development. IFAD, with its knowledge of rural poverty and exclusive focus on poor rural people, designs and implements programmes to help those people access the assets, services and opportunities they need to overcome poverty. [17] [16] [10]

Following the successful reconstruction of Germany and Japan, the IMF and WB began to turn their attention to the developing world. A great many civil society actors were also active in trying to combat hunger, especially after the late 1970s when global media began to bring the plight of starving people in places like Ethiopia to wider attention. Most significant of all, especially in the late 1960s and 70s, there was the Green revolution which saw improved agricultural technology propagated throughout the world. [17] [16] [10]

The United States of America began to change its approach to the problem of world hunger from about the mid 1950s. Influential members of the administration became less enthusiastic about methods which they saw as promoting an over reliance on the state, as they feared that might assist the spread of communism. By the 1980s, the previous consensus in favour of moderate government intervention had been displaced across the western world. The IMF and World Bank in particular began promoting market based solutions; in cases where countries became dependent on their finance, they sometimes forced national governments to prioritize debt repayments, and to sharply cut public services which sometimes had a negative effect on efforts to combat hunger. Organizations such as Food First raised the issue of food sovereignty and claimed that every country on earth (with the possible minor exceptions of some city-states) has sufficient agricultural capacity to feed its own people, but that the "free trade" economic order, which from the late 1970s to about 2008 had been associated with such institutions as the IMF and World Bank, had prevented this from happening. The World Bank itself had claimed to be part of the solution to hunger, asserting that the best way for countries to succeed in breaking the cycle of poverty and hunger was to build export-led economies that will give them the financial means to buy foodstuffs on the world market. However, in the early 21st century the World Bank and IMF became less dogmatic about promoting free market reforms. They increasingly returned to the view that government intervention does have a role to play, and that it can be advisable for governments to support food security with policies favourable to domestic agriculture, even for countries that do not have a Comparative advantage in that area. As of 2012, the World Bank remains active in helping governments to intervene against hunger.[17][18] [19] [17] [16] [10]

Until at least the 1980s, and to an extent the 1990s, the dominant academic view concerning world hunger was that it could be understood as problem of demand exceeding overall supply. So proposed solutions often focused on boosting food production and sometimes on birth control. There were exceptions to this, even as early as the 1940s, Lord Boyd-Orr , the first head of the UN's FAO, had perceived hunger as being largely a problem of distribution, and had drawn up comprehensive plans to correct this. But few agreed with him at the time, and he resigned after failing to secure support for his plans from the US and Great Britain. In 1998, Amartya Sen won his Nobel Prize in part for work demonstrating that hunger in modern times was not typically the product of a lack of food; rather, hunger usually arose from problems in food distribution networks or from governmental policies in the developing world. It has since been broadly accepted that world hunger results from issues with the distribution as well as the production of food. [16]

In 2007 and 2008, rapidly increasing food prices caused a global food crisis, increasing the numbers suffering from hunger by over a hundred million. Food riots erupted in several dozen countries; in at least two cases, Haiti and Madagascar, this led to governments being toppled. A second global food crisis occurred due to the spike in food prices of late 2010 and early 2011. Less food riots occurred due in part to greater stock piles of food being available for relief; however several analysts have argued it was one of the causes of the Arab Spring.[17][20][21]

Efforts since the global 2008 crisis

A young girl standing amid the freshly made graves of 70 children in Dadaab. Many of them died of malnutrition during an extensive drought in East Africa, which began in July 2011.

In the early 21st century, there was relatively little awareness of hunger from leaders of advanced nations, such as those which form the G8. Prior to 2009, efforts to fight hunger were mainly undertaken by the governments of those countries worst affected by it, by civil society actors, and by multilateral and regional organizations. In 2009, His Holinesss Pope Benedict published his third encyclical, Caritas in Veritate, which emphasised the importance of fighting against hunger. The encyclical was intentionally published immediately before the July 2009 G8 Summit, in order to maximise its influence on that event. At the Summit, which took place at L'Aquila in central Italy, the L'Aquila Food Security Initiative was launched, with a total of US$22 billion was committed to combat hunger. In 2009 and early 2010, food prices did fall sharply, though analysts credit this much more to farmers increasing production in response to the 2008 spike in prices, rather than to the fruits of enhanced government action. However, ever since the 2009 G8 summit, the fight against hunger has remained a high profile issue among the leaders of the worlds major nations, and was a prominent part of the agenda for the 2012 G-20 summit.[20] [22][23][24] [25]

In April 2012, the Food Assistance Convention was signed, the world's first legally binding international agreement on food aid. The May 2012 Copenhagen Consensus recommended that efforts to combat hunger and malnutrition ought to be the No. 1 priority for politicians and private sector philanthropists looking to maximize the effectiveness of their spending on aid. This was ahead of other priorities like the fight against malaria and AIDS.[26] Also in May 2012, U.S. President Barack Obama launched the "new alliance for food security and nutrition" - a broad partnership between private sector, governmental and civil society actors - which aimed to "achieve sustained and inclusive agricultural growth and raise 50 million people out of poverty over the next 10 years".[24][27][28] Great Britain's prime minister David Cameron held a hunger summit on 12 August, the last day of the 2012 Summer Olympics.[24]

The fight against hunger has also been joined by an increased number of regular people. While folk throughout the world had long contributed to efforts to alleviate hunger in the developing world, there has recently been a rapid increase in the numbers involved in tackling domestic hunger even within the economically advanced nations of the Global North. This happened much earlier in North America than it did in Europe. For the US, State run welfare provision was scaled back by president Raegan's administration in the early 1980s, leading to a vast increase in efforts by the charity sector to help Americans unable to buy enough to eat. According to a 1992 survey of 1000 randomly selected US voters, 77% of Americans had contributed to efforts to feed the hungry, either by volunteering for the various hunger relief agencies such as food banks and soup kitchens, or by donating cash or food.[29] In western Europe with its more generous welfare provision, there was little awareness of domestic hunger until the inflation in food prices which began in late 2006, and especially as austerity imposed welfare cuts began to take effect from 2010. Various surveys reported that upwards of 10% of Europe's population had begun to suffer from food insecurity. Especially since 2011, there has been a substantial increase in grass roots efforts to help the hungry by means of food banks, within both the UK and continental Europe.[1][30][31][32][33]

By July 2012, the 2012 US drought had already caused a rapid increase in the price of grain and soy, with a knock on effect on the price of meat. As well as affecting hungry people in the US, this has caused prices to rise on the global markets; the US is the world's biggest exporter of food. There has been much talk that this may cause the 21st century's third global food crisis. The Financial Times reports that the BRICS may not be as badly affected as they were in the earlier crises of 2008 and 2011. However, smaller developing countries which need to import a substantial portion of their food could be hard hit. The UN and G20 has began contingency planning so as to be ready to intervene if a third global crisis does break out.[19][21][34][35]

In the United States

Volunteers pass out food items from a Feeding America food bank
Main article: Hunger in the United States

The Meals On Wheels Association of America Foundation (MOWAAF) reports it has found that hunger is a serious threat facing millions of seniors in the United States, and that understanding the problem is a critical first step to developing remedies. In 2007, MOWAAF, underwritten by the Harrah's Foundation, commissioned a research study entitled The Causes, Consequences and Future of Senior Hunger in America.[36] The report was released at a hearing of the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging in March 2008 in Washington, D.C.

The study found that in the U.S., over 5 million seniors (11.4% of seniors), experience some form of food insecurity (i.e., were marginally food insecure). Of these, about 2.5 million are at-risk of hunger, and about 750,000 suffer from hunger due to financial constraints. Some groups of seniors are more likely to be at-risk of hunger. Relative to their representation in the overall senior population, those with limited incomes, under age 70, African American, Hispanic, never-married, renters, and seniors living in the Southern United States are all more likely to be at-risk of hunger. While certain groups of seniors are at greater-risk of hunger, hunger cuts across the income spectrum. For example, over 50% of all seniors who are at-risk of hunger have incomes above the poverty threshold. Likewise, it is present in all demographic groups. For example, over two-thirds of seniors at-risk of hunger are Caucasian. There are marked differences in the risk of hunger across family structure, especially for those seniors living alone, or those living with a grandchild. Those living alone are twice as likely to experience hunger compared to married seniors. One in five senior households with a grandchild (but no adult child) present is at-risk of hunger, compared to about 1 in 20 households without a grandchild present. Seniors living in non-metropolitan areas are as likely to experience food insecurity as those living in metropolitan areas, suggesting that food insecurity cuts across the urban-rural continuum.[37]

The number of Americans suffering from hunger rose after the 2008 financial crisis, with children and working adults now making up a large proportion of those affected. In 2012, Gleaners Indianna Food bank reported that there were now 50 million Americans struggling with food insecurity (about 1 in 6 of the population), and that the number of folk seeking help from food banks had increased by 46% since 2005.[38] According to a 2012 study by UCLA Center for Health Policy Research, even married couples who both work but have low incomes will sometimes now require the aid of food banks.[39][40]

Hunger and women suffering

Main article: Food security § Gender and food security
Migrant Mother by Dorothea Lange (1936).

In both developing and advanced countries, both mothers and fathers will sometimes go without eating so their children can avoid hunger. But women seem to be more likely to make this sacrifice than men. Studies by World Bank have consistently found that about 60% of those experiencing hunger are female. The explanation for this disproportionate suffering appears to be that compared to men, women will more often forgo meals in order to feed their children. In older sources this was sometimes said to be a phenomena unique to developing countries, due to greater sexual inequality. More recent findings have suggested that mothers will also often miss meals even in advanced economies. For example, a 2012 study undertook by Netmums in the UK found that one in five mothers would sometimes miss out on food so as to be able to save their children from going hungry.[19][41][42]

In several periods and regions, gender has also been an important factor determining whether or not victims of hunger would make suitable examples for generating enthusiasm for hunger relief efforts. James Vernon, in his Hunger: A Modern History, wrote that in Britain before the 20th century, it was generally only women and children suffering from hunger who could arouse compassion. Men who failed to provide for themselves and their families were often regarded with contempt. This changed after World War 1, where thousands of men who had proved their manliness in combat found themselves unable to secure employment. Similarly, female gender could be advantageous for those wishing to advocate for hunger relief, with Vernon writing that being a woman helped Emily Hobhouse draw the plight of hungry people to wider attention during the Second Boer War. [15]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b David Model (30 October 2012). "Britain's hidden hunger". BBC. Retrieved 4 November 2012.
  2. ^ Howard Wilcox Haggard (1977). Diet and Physical Efficiency. Arno Press. ISBN 0405101716.
  3. ^ Carol Kop (11 February 2009). "The Hunger Hormone". CBS News. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
  4. ^ FAO, WFP and IFAD. 2012. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2012 FAO, Retrieved 4 December 2012
  5. ^ a b c FAO Hunger Portal FAO, Retrieved 4 December 2012
  6. ^ "UN says world hungry not 1 billion after all". Bloomberg Businessweek. 9 October 2012. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  7. ^ As an example of historical oppostion to food aid, during the Hungry Forties, English Laissez-faire advocates were largely successful in preventing it being deployed by Great Britain to relief the Irish famine -see for example the section on "Ideology and relief"' in Chpt. 2 of The Great Irish Famine by Cormac Ó Gráda. For a detailed description of how views opposed to hunger relief became dominant within Great Britains policy making circles during the 19th century, and also their subsequent displacement, see Hunger: A Modern History (2007) by James Vernon, esp. Chpts. 1-3. In 2012, advocates of small government spoke out against the US food stamp programme, saying it discourages people from fending for themselves, in the same way as its not always a good idea to feed hungry wild animals. ( See Food stamp debate brings out the haters published by the Star Telegram. )
  8. ^ Simone Weil (2002 - orig. written 1942). The Need for Roots. Routledge. p. 6. ISBN 0-415-27102-9. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  9. ^ Karl Polanyi (2002 - orig. published 1942). "chpt. 4". The Great Transformation. Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5643-1. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  10. ^ a b c d e f David Grigg (1981). "The historiography of hunger: changing views on the world food problem 1945–1980". Transaction of the Institute of British Geographers. NS. 6, No 3: 279–292. Before 1945 very little academic or political notice was taken of the problem of world hunger, since 1945 there has been a vast literature on the subject.
  11. ^ See the story of Jacob and the seven years of plenty, seven years of famine: Genesis 41
  12. ^ For further info see Hunger in the United Kingdom#Attitudes towards hunger relief.
  13. ^ Note that there were many exceptions to this, for example in see Hunger: A Modern History (2007), James Vernon describes dozens of 18th and 19th century campaigners who spoke out in favor of hunger relieve.
  14. ^ Charles Creighton (1891 (republished 2010)). "Chapt. 1". History of Epidemics in Britain. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 114494760X. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  15. ^ a b James Vernon (2007). "Chpts. 1-3". Hunger: A Modern History. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674026780.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g William A Dando, ed. (2012). "passim, see esp Introduction; Historiography of Food, Hunger and famine; Hunger and Starvation". Food and Famine in the 21st Century: Vol 1, Topics and Issues. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-59884-730-7. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  17. ^ a b c d e f John R. Butterly and Jack Shepherd (2010). Hunger: The Biology and Politics of Starvation. Dartmouth College. ISBN 1584659262.
  18. ^ Joseph Stiglitz (7 May 2011). "The IMF's change of heart". Aljazeera. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
  19. ^ a b c "Food Price Volatility a Growing Concern, World Bank Stands Ready to Respond". World Bank. 30 March 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  20. ^ a b Javier Blas (2012-06-18). "Food prices: Leaders seek a long-term solution to hunger pains". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-07-31 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  21. ^ a b Andrew Bowman (2012-07-27). "Food crisis: how do the Brics fare?". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-07-31 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  22. ^ Guy Dinmore in L'Aquila (2009-07-10). "G8 to commit $20bn for food security". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2009-11-15 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  23. ^ Guy Dinmore in Rome (2009-07-07). "Pope condemns capitalism's 'failures'". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2009-07-07 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  24. ^ a b c Joanna Rea (25 May 2012). "2012 G8 summit – private sector to the rescue of the world's poorest?". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
  25. ^ FAO Food Price Index FAO, Retrieved 4 December 2012
  26. ^ Outcome of the 2012 Copenhagen Consensus
  27. ^ G8 Action on Food Security and Nutrition 2012 statement hosted by the US Department of State
  28. ^ Remarks by President concerning the launch of the new alliance for food security and nutrition
  29. ^ Janet Poppendieck (1999). "Introduction, Chpt 1". Sweet Charity?: Emergency Food and the End of Entitlement. Penguine. ISBN 0140245561.
  30. ^ "A million hungry children in the UK". Yahoo!. 12 July 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  31. ^ Charlie Cooper (6 April 2012). "Look back in hunger: Britain's silent, scandalous epidemic". The Guardian. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
  32. ^ Rowenna Davis (12 May 2012). "The rise and rise of the food bank". New Statesman. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  33. ^ "HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN THE GLOBAL NORTH: CHALLENGES AND RESPONSIBILITIES REPORT OF WARWICK CONFERENCE" (PDF). Warwick University. 6 July 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
  34. ^ Gregory Meyer (2012-07-30). "US drought: Stuck on dry land : Heatwave threatens new global food crisis". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-07-31 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  35. ^ Javier Bains (2012-08-12). "G20 plans response to rising food prices". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2012-08-15 (registration required). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); line feed character in |accessdate= at position 11 (help)
  36. ^ Ziliak, Gundersen and Haist. (2007) The Causes, Consequences and Future of Senior Hunger in America, University of Kentucky Center for Poverty and Research, Lexington, KY. (88pages. 2MB.)
  37. ^ Excerpt from "The Causes, Consequences and Future of Senior Hunger in America", Executive Summary, pp.i-ii
  38. ^ Gleaners Indianna Food bank Retrieved 2012-07-18
  39. ^ Alex Ferreras (11 July 2012). "Thousands More in Solano, Napa Counties are Turning to Food Banks". Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  40. ^ John Turner (20 September 2012). "Poverty and hunger in America". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 October 2012.
  41. ^ Miriam Ross, (8 March 2012). "555 million women go hungry worldwide". World Development Movement. Retrieved 31 July 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  42. ^ "Mums missing meals to feed kids". The Daily Telegraph. 16 February 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2012.

Further reading

  • Hunger an unnatural history(2006) by Sharman Apt Russell - rather than focus on the politics and economics of hunger, this work discusses the psychological effect on individuals and also explores the topic from an anthropological perspective.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hunger.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Hunger
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