Rozvi Empire

Rozvi Empire Rozvi
c. 1683–1873
Map showing the extent of the Rozvi empire and its center around Butwa
Capital	Danamombe
Common languages	iKalanga (adopted)
Religion	Shona traditional religion
Government	Monarchy
Changamire
• c. 1683–c. 1696	Changamire Dombo
• 1831–1873	Changamire Tohwechipi
History
• Rise of Changamire Dombo	late-17th century
• Rozvi conquest of Butua	c. 1683
• Surrender of Tohwechipi	1873
Preceded by Succeeded by Mutapa Empire Kingdom of Butua Venda Kingdom Nambya state Mthwakazi

The Rozvi Empire (c. 1683–1873), was a Shona state established by Changamire Dombo on the Zimbabwean Plateau. The term "Rozvi" refers to their legacy as a warrior nation, taken from the Shona term kurozva, "to plunder". They became the most powerful fighting force in the whole of Zimbabwe.

There is little information available on the Rozvi Empire because the Portuguese were barred from entering it, meaning contemporary accounts were based on hearsay, and dynastic oral traditions were greatly disrupted by migrations and the Ndebele and British conquests of the 1840s and 1890s respectively.

History

Changamire I and Mutapa

A 1506 account by Diogo de Alcáçova mentions a 'Changamire' (termed "Changamire I") who revolted against Mutapa in the 1490s. The genealogy of Changamire I has been the subject of speculation by scholars. Some scholars say he was a member of the Torwa dynasty of Butua or a friend of them, while others say he was a son of Mwenemutapa Matope or that he married one of Matope's daughters. After analysing Valoyi traditions, Mathebula and Mokgoatšana say that Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or having married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister).

According to Alcáçova's account, rumours were spread by others close to Mwenemutapa Mukombero that Changamire, an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty, was plotting for the kingship, and Mukombero ordered Changamire to undertake a poison trial, wherein if he drank the poison (muteyo) and were harmed by it, he would be deemed guilty. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's zimbabwe and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape. Around 1494, Chikuyo returned with a large army, and they fought a long and deadly battle ending in Changamire I's death. Chikuyo assumed the kingship and consolidated his rule over the empire, except for 'Guruuswa' which stayed loyal to the successor Changamire II; over the course of the following decades the Mwenemutapa is known to have fought Changamire II (likely aided by Butua) intermittently, until at least 1512.

Scholars differ on whether Changamire Dombo, the founder of the Rozvi Empire, descended from Changamire I. Stan Mudenge considered Changamire to have been a honorific title, though others such as Catrien Van Waarden and David Beach thought it to have been a dynastic name, and Van Waarden says that Changamire I may have been the founder of the lineage that produced Dombo.

Origins and the conquests of Changamire Dombo

The followers of Changamire Dombo came from an area in the northeast of the Zimbabwean Plateau, between the upper Mazoe and Nyadire rivers where the moyo (heart) totem predominated. Following the ascension of Mavhura to the Mutapa kingship in 1629 during his war with Kapararidze, Mutapa became a Portuguese vassal. The following decades saw widespread lawlessness as Portuguese prazo-holders in Mutapa, who were outside the jurisdiction of the Mwenemutapa's courts due to the terms of the vassalage treaty, regularly raided and enslaved their Shona neighbours (and even deposed a Mwenemutapa), with the Portuguese Crown unable and unwilling to stop them, incensing provincial chiefs. From the late 1660s to '80s, the wider region was devastated by locusts, smallpox, measles, and plagues (the effects of which were worsened by insecurity), with many villages and fields left abandoned. Trade greatly decreased, and Mudenge estimated that over half of Mutapa's population may have died.

Changamire Dombo (called "Dombolakonachingwango" or "Chikurawadyembeu" in traditions) is reported to have either been the keeper of Mwenemutapa Mukombwe's royal cattle herds which he used to gain support in moyo territory, or the leader of a Mutapa army who rebelled. Both Mudenge and Beach considered the former to be true. The kuronzera system involved someone loaning their cattle to another, who was permitted to keep the cattle's product and profit from it, but not to dispose of the cattle, effectively constituting vassalage. Beach said that Dombo's rise to power likely began in the 1670s, and he used the royal herds to gain followers, before seizing some land which Mukombwe then spuriously granted to him. Portuguese presence in Mutapa had been greatly reduced by the disasters, and in the early 1680s the Portuguese Crown ordered settlers to leave Mutapa to prevent Mukombwe's rebellion. However, throughout the 1680s and '90s Portuguese presence in the region increased again, as they sought to revive their occupation of Mutapa. According to one source, the Portuguese in the gold-producing kingdom of Manyika paid kuruva (a tax permitting trade) to Dombo, and had been attacked by his forces after refusing to continue payments, causing them to move into Maungwe. Around 1683, Dombo's forces attacked the Portuguese forces of the Governor of Mozambique in Maungwe (in which the governor reportedly invested all of the Portuguese resources of the Zambezi Valley) and decisively defeated them. But before Dombo could pursue the retreating army, his land was attacked by Mukombwe's forces, which he also defeated, and it was reported that all Mutapa grandees and some Portuguese in Mutapa were killed.

With his followers (called "Rozvi", from the verb kurozva meaning "to destroy"), c. 1683 Dombo next turned to the Kingdom of Butua in the southwest of the Plateau. This out-migration was partly due to famine and disease in the northeast, but also because the mambo (king) of Butua (which was wealthy) had recently won a civil war with Portuguese assistance, and their withdrawal may have left the mambo in a weak position. A drier climate after c. 1675 may have also incentivised Rozvi out-migration, while also weakening Butua's mambo's legitimacy as he failed to bring rain. Rozvi traditions say that in Butua there were two rulers, Chibundule and Tumbare of the soko (monkey/baboon) and bepe (calabash) totems respectively, who both lived on hills (symbolising power and royalty), and that Dombo built his own hill taller than theirs. Kalanga (Butua) traditions say that Dombo was only able to defeat Chibundule (represented as having supernatural powers) by giving Chibundule his daughter/sister in marriage who cut his braids (worn like a horn on the fontanelle, symbolising power). Gifting a relative as a wife was often an act of submission, and one account said that Dombo initially paid tribute to Butua. Chibundule is then said to have been defeated in battle, before fleeing to the Matombo a Bhuba mountains where he disappeared. Kalanga traditions also mention Tumbare, but only as a Chief Councillor of Dombo, though they do detail how Tumbare's father attempted to take power three times (the third involving Chibundule's marriage). Van Waarden said that, along with the possible relations from Changamire I, Dombo's mother may have been Torwa as her lineage is said to have had the soko totem. Van Waarden concludes that factionalism in Butua likely allowed Dombo to support Tumbare to the Butua kingship, before "pushing him aside". Dombo spent the following years consolidating his rule in Butua.

Around 1693, Dombo may have supported Mwenemutapa Nyakunembire to the Mutapa kingship, foiling Portuguese plans to install their preferred candidate, and Nyakunembire requested Dombo's assistance against the Portuguese. In 1693 Dombo's forces attacked the feira (marketplace) of Dambarare, killing all its inhabitants and burning its church; all feiras were subsequently abandoned save for ones in Manyika, and Portuguese traders fled, eventually reaching Tete. Dombo's forces likely continued to wreak havoc, burning down Masapa, and at some point relations between him and Nyakunembire soured. Dombo left to pursue his own interests elsewhere on the Plateau. By 1694 Dombo was back in the northeast campaigning in Maungwe, at which time Nyakunembire was ousted by the Portuguese candidate, and he fled to Dombo. Mudenge wrote that Dombo could have intervened and returned Nyakunembire back to power, but chose not to. In 1695 Dombo's forces invaded Manyika, forcing the temporary abandonment of its feiras, and replacing its Chikanga (king) with his own candidate, possibly Nyakunembire. From then on, Manyika was a Rozvi vassal. Following these battles and conquests, the Rozvi gained a reputation for ferocity and invincibility, said to have been due to their war drums. Throughout Dombo's reign, the Portuguese were terrified of possible attacks on Tete, Sena, and Sofala, viewing their own expulsion from the Plateau as comeuppance for their previous actions, however these did not happen as Dombo died c. 1696.

After Dombo

Following Dombo's death, there was a succession dispute involving his sons, one of which hurried back to Butua from the campaign in Manyika. In the late-17th century, members of the Changamire dynasty migrated southwards to the Soutpansberg to found the Venda Kingdom at Dzata, with traditions mentioning "political dissension". Around the early-18th century, a group of Rozvi led by Sawanga migrated north to the Lower Gwai and founded the Nambya state at Hwange. Thomas Huffman considered both of these migrations to have been led by losing sons of the succession dispute. Another Rozvi group led by Chireya overcame the Shangwe Confederacy on the Mafungabusi Plateau. One Rozvi tradition says that the kingship was offered to Washaya who refused it, and Nechasike or Nechapingura ascended instead. Another tradition says that Dombo's successor was assisted by Kalanga ruler "Ndumba" (who was married to his sister, and possibly identified with Tumbare). In 1702, the Changamire raided Mutapa and helped Samutumbu Nyamhandu overthrow Mwenemutapa Chirimbe, though Chirimbe was reinstated a year later with Portuguese support.

The Rozvi traded with the Portuguese, who had been forced to abandon their feiras on the Zimbabwean Plateau, via Zumbo, which was founded around 1720. The prohibition on Portuguese entering the Rozvi state meant that this was done through intermediaries (vashambadzi). Nechasike was succeeded by his brother Nechagadsike, who David Beach said may have lived until 1767. In 1768, civil war ensued between a previous ruler's son and a 'usurper', with the usurper eventually defeated and killed. Throughout the 18th and early-19th centuries, the region received migrations of Tswana, Birwa, Hlengwe, and Karanga populations, overcoming some of the Changamire's subjects and sometimes discontinuing payments of tribute. In 1772, the Rozvi army dislodged a blockade of Zumbo by a rival to the Mwenemutapa. Rupandamananga ruled in the late-18th century, who tradition says failed to help the population during drought (coming to be called Rupengo, "mad"). Rozvi traditions say that when the Mhari invaded the upper Runde Valley, a Rozvi conspiracy brought Rupandamananga into conflict with them and left him to die on the battlefield. A major drought occurred from 1795 to 1800. Accordingly, the Mhari supported Gumboremvura to the kingship, who was likely in power by 1802 and is remembered as a popular ruler. In Shona customs, losing candidates to the kingship were given territory near the capital; by 1802, one such branch of the Changamire dynasty was the Mutinhima house, whose origins vary, and its leader was reportedly the second most powerful position in the state. During Gumboremvura's reign, the Mutinhima house unsuccessfully revolted with support from the sekuru houses of Nerwande and Mavudzi, which were close advisors to the Changamire and ritually powerful.

After Gumboremvura's death, the kingship was contested by the Dyembeu title-holder and Chirisamhuru, which Chirisamhuru won with the assistance of the Dyembeu's own sons. A major drought from 1824 to 1829 contributed to political instability. Long-standing trading partners like the Portuguese shifted their attention to slaves, thus decreasing demand for gold; thus the Shona tradition of gold mining and trade, which had lasted almost a millennium, declined and so the power of central governments like the Rozvi started to weaken. On top of all the challenges, the 1830s were a time of multiple invasions and wars that the Rozvi Empire never recovered completely from.

In the area of modern-day South Africa, several events resulted in a mass exodus. Drought, invading Dutch settlers and the catastrophic aftermath of the Mfecane resulted in waves of Nguni tribes moving north. Successive attacks on the Empire by the Mpanga, Ngwana, Maseko and Zwangendaba were repelled, but did much damage. Another wave of attacks followed from the group led by the Swazi Queen Nyamazanana, resulting in the capture of the capital Manyanga and the murder of the Rozvi Mambo Chirisamhuru. Contrary to the established narrative, this was not the end of the Rozvi Empire. Chirisamhuru's son, Tohwechipi escaped and went into exile in the Buhera area. With the support of the Mutinhima and other Noble Rozvi Houses, Tohwechipi effectively became the Rozvi Mambo.

Mzilikazi realized that although some of the Rozvi nobility had accepted him as King, most of the Shona did not accept him, limiting the geographic area of his Kingdom. Taking a diplomatic approach, he sent word to Tohwechipi asking him to return home and submit to him, crowning him King of the Shona. Tohwechipi did not accept Mzilikazi's offer and instead, consolidated his power and spent the next 30 years in a series of back-and-forth raids and counter-raids with Mzilikazi and eventually Lobengula, earning the nickname Chibhamubhamu because of his army of raiders armed with rifles. Tohwechipi was defeated in battle, and surrendered in 1866 and curiously, Mzilikazi let him go. He died around 1873 in the Nyashanu area in Buhera and was buried there in Mavangwe Hills. Tohwechipi's grave is a protected national monument.

Government

The state was headed by a Mambo (king/emperor) of the Changamire dynasty, and its capital was Danamombe (also called "Dhlo Dhlo" in Ndebele). One tradition says that Dombo stayed in "Chivari" before moving to Danamombe, and Naletale may have been used by the mambo at times. In the state's final years, the capital may have been at Manyanga, near where Chirisamhuru died. The mambo had a dale (council) whose positions were filled by Dombo's close advisors (makulukoto) and inherited by their lineages. They included four Chief Councillors, namely Nhale (of the moyo (heart) totem, father of Meng'we who ruled over eastern Botswana), Mabhaya Gomo (bepe (calabash), father of Tumbare, head of the military), Ninjigwe (keeper of cannons seized from the Portuguese, which appeared in praises), and Ngomane (gumbo (leg), Chief Diviner). Along with the Chief Councillors, the dale included two sekuru (mother's brother) lineages (Nerwande and Mavudzi), who later fulfilled the role of priests and rainmakers. There was also Bagedze Moyo, the daughter/sister of Dombo who in traditions married Chibundule and curtailed his power; she served as the leader of women, and was allocated some of the state's wealth. These positions sought to represent various segments of society, including the military, local government, women, and the priesthood (and by extension the ancestors and Mwali (God)), as well as public opinion. The mambo's dale advised him at the khuta (royal court), which saw to national matters and was primarily attended by men. The mambo also had a small group of bodyguards consisting of unmarried young men (mwanamwana).

Succession to the kingship passed collaterally from brother to brother, first to the deceased mambo's eldest brother, then on to the next-eldest, and eventually to brothers of different houses (i.e. different mothers), before passing on to the next generation and the eldest son of the eldest brother, and so forth. As with the Mutapa state, this rotation between houses caused much conflict within the royal family, and rulers often relied on support from outside of it. Losing candidates were compensated by being allocated land near the capital. The population of the state was composed of three groups: the people of the moyo totem (which included the ruling dynasty), the non-moyo people who accompanied them in their migration from the northeast, and the Kalanga. The Kalanga included Butua's ruling class, which was incorporated into the state and intermarried with the Changamire dynasty. As part of their integration, the Kalanga dialect was adopted by the Rozvi, though they retained the "r" sound. The mambo's position depended on maintaining support from all of these groups.

The state was composed of concentric zones, wherein the territory around the capital was ruled directly by the mambo, a zone surrounding this ruled by royals, another outer zone ruled by associates of the mambo (such as the sekuru houses and Rozvi), the core around Khami ruled by "Ndumba" (possibly Tumbare), and another zone consisting of Kalanga ruled by moyo chiefs, along with tributaries located further from the capital. The population paid tribute (mupeta) to the mambo annually with goods that they produced, which were then redistributed throughout the state, and they also engaged in tribute labour (zhunde). In return, the population received land grants, religious ceremonies believed to bestow rain and fertility, food during drought, Portuguese trade, and protection from foreign and Rozvi armies. As happened in Mutapa, a ceremony occurred annually during which all fires in the state were put out and only relit from a fire the mambo transferred to chiefs, symbolising submission. The custom of kugadza she allowed the mambo to approve or install chiefs and headmen, and bestow symbols of office such as a sheathed knife (mucho-mucho) and colourful trailing garment for important chiefs, and a conch whorl crown (chiremba) and staff (tswimbo) for lesser chiefs. Chiefs were given a handful of soil on installation. Loyalty was also fostered by granting land (kuveranyika) to various groups, which was likely also done by chiefs, and this was compounded by the kuronzera system.

Economy

The economy was based in agropastoralism, for which there were good environmental conditions, and the region was rich in copper, gold, iron, ivory, salt (in the west), and game. People mainly worked as farmers, though could also engage in hunting, mining, and specialised crafts in their spare time and use the products for trade or tribute. Crops included sorghum and millet, and the state depended heavily on subsistence farming. Livestock was important; they kept sheep, goats, cattle and chickens; men who owned much livestock had high social status.

There is little information available about local production and trade in the state. People likely mined gold in their spare time and sent a portion to the mambo as tribute, though by the 19th century most accessible deposits had been exploited down to the water table. According to one source, copper was mined and smelted by all families, though another source stated that smithing was done by specific families who held high status. Iron, copper, and gold were made into tools and jewellery, while luxury objects were also made out of ivory, soapstone, and shells. A cotton cloth called matjira was produced by men (though the industry was not as large as in the lower Zambezi Valley), and matjira dyed black was especially highly valued.

People paid tribute to the mambo with goods they produced, such as tobacco, animal skins and furs, iron tools, livestock, grain, ivory, cloth, beads, and gold. People also engaged in tribute labour (zhunde) for chiefs, which largely involved agricultural work, the produce of which was used to feed the workers, the chiefs' guests, and those with nothing, while also being distributed during famine. Zhunde was likely also used to build chiefs' houses. It is unclear whether zhunde for the mambo took the form of military service, agricultural work, or construction projects such as stone structures. Though according to one source the Changamires rarely built stone structures such as zimbabwe, and instead resided in ancient stone ruins. Wives undertook zhunde on their husbands' fields, with the produce saved for emergencies, while men paid brideprice to their parents-in-law with zhunde.

The Rozvi engaged in long-distance trade with the Portuguese via Zumbo, and in the mid- to late-18th century permitted the presence of a feira in Manyika. The mambo was paid a very large tax (kuruva) by the Portuguese for permission to trade in the interior. Due to the Portuguese being barred from entering the Rozvi state, this trade was done through travelling merchants (vashambadzi), with the journey there and back taking around a year. One Portuguese source dated to 1750 lamented vashambadzi running off with the trade goods. The Rozvi primarily exported gold and ivory for cloth and beads, but also imported other goods such as Chinese porcelain and muzzleloaders. The mambo was reported to have dictated trade, with all gold required to be sent to him and chiefs that were found to keep some condemned to death, though it is unclear how dominant this monopoly was. There were reports of vashambadzi trading directly with villages, and chiefs had the right to one tusk from every elephant hunted in their territory. The exploitation of most accessible gold deposits meant that the amount of gold exported declined gradually from the mid- to late-18th century, while ivory exports remained high. The Rozvi imported dogs from the Tswana in the west.

Society and culture

Initiation ceremonies for boys and girls were held individually rather than in groups. Girls were prepared for marriage by a mbonga, an unmarried woman of the chief's patrilineal kin, usually the chief's sister who guarded the clan's charms.

Rainmaking ceremonies were likely initially held at Khami because the Rozvi, as newcomers, did not have strong enough relations with the spirits of the land. Catrien Van Waarden wrote that after the final Torwa mambo failed to bring rain, the Kalanga population likely embraced the closely-related Rozvi religion as a 'better' way to solicit rain. Mediumship among the Kalanga was replaced by mazenge possession, wherein a woman would be possessed by a 'wild lion spirit' and resolve domestic conflict while wearing a mane of imported beads and a special cloth. This subversion of ancestral spirit possession was possibly because the Rozvi mambo could not use the Torwa mhondoro.

Military

The Rozvi boasted a large, disciplined, and greatly-feared military which served to project power and maintain their supremacy on the Zimbabwean Plateau. It is unclear whether the Rozvi had a full-time standing army. The military was composed of regiments (missoca), each led by a cabo who answered to a general (inhabeze), who in turn took instructions from Tumbare as the supreme inhabeze. The mambo was the commander-in-chief. The army was accompanied by women who carried supplies, collected water, and cooked for the soldiers, which allowed for longer campaigns. Soldiers also brought some food for themselves, such that the call to arms was "Chisadza mhomwe", meaning "Fill your bags with porridge". Both Rozvi and Kalanga traditions say that the mambo's military was empowered by war drums, which Ngomane (Chief Diviner) reinvigorated annually using captured children and young men from the mambo's subjects who were made into medicine (a metaphor for recruitment).

In battle, the army were organised into a crescent or bullhorn formation where the main body (viatte) was flanked by two 'horns' (mulomo acumba), with some following behind who saw to the wounded and distributed supplies to prevent a retreat. Soldiers were armed with bows and arrows, spears, shields, battle axes, daggers, and bludgeons. The Rozvi also had muskets and cannons, though the guns obtained from trade were often faulty and ineffective. Traditions say that Tumbare sounded the war drums after the mambo fired a cannon as part of the call to arms. Accordingly, the drums were carried into battle and they were opened to release sacred bees or worms which stung and killed the enemy. This likely referred to poison arrows, with San arrow poison being made from a specific beetle's larvae ('worms'). Other tactics employed by the Rozvi included making fires whose smoke disorientated the enemy and whose embers burnt their feet, while another possible tactic was poisoning the enemy's food and water supply.

List of rulers

Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989).

1. Changamire Dombo (1660–1695)
2. Changamire Zharare (c. 1695 – c. 1700)
3. Changamire Negamo (c. 1700–1710)
4. Chirisamuru (c. 1712–1788)
5. Changamire Dhafa (c. 1790–1824)
6. Changamire Baswi (c. 1825)
7. Changamire Chirisamuru II (c. 1828–1836)
8. Changamire Tohwechipi Zharare (1838–1866)