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{{Redirect|Russian Federation|the Soviet republic also referred to as the "Russian Federation"|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|other uses of "Russia"|Russia (disambiguation)}}
{{Coord|60|N|90|E|display=title}}{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Russian Federation
|native_name = {{native name|ru|Российская Федерация|italics=no|icon=no}} <br /> ''{{small|Rossiyskaya Federatsiya}}''
|common_name = Russia
|image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg
|national_anthem = <br />"[[National Anthem of Russia|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации]]"<br />"''[[National Anthem of Russia|Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii]]''"{{nbsp|2}}{{small|([[Romanization of Russian|transliteration]])}}<br />{{small|"State Anthem of the Russian Federation"}}<br /><center>[[File:National Anthem of Russia (2000), three verses.ogg]]</center>
|image_map = Russian_Federation (orthographic_projection) - Crimea disputed.svg
|map_width = 220px
|map_caption =
Russia (dark green)<br />
[[Crimea|Crimean peninsula]] ([[Political status of Crimea|disputed]]) (light green)<sup>a</sup>
|capital = [[Moscow]]
|latd=55 |latm=45 |latNS=N |longd=37 |longm=37 |longEW=E
|largest_city = capital
|official_languages =
[[Russian language|Russian]]
|recognised_languages = [[Languages of Russia|35 other languages co-official]] in various regions{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}
|ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 81.0% [[Russians|Russian]]
| 3.7% [[Tatars|Tatar]]
| 1.4% [[Ukrainians in Russia|Ukrainian]]
| 1.1% [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]]
| 1.0% [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]]
| 0.8% [[Chechen people|Chechen]]
| {{nowrap|11.0% others{{\}}unspecified}}
}}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2010<ref name="perepis-2010.ru"/>
|demonym = [[Russian (disambiguation)|Russian]]
|government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Russia|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Vladimir Putin]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Dmitry Medvedev]]
|leader_title3 = [[Federation Council (Russia)|Chairman of the Federation Council]]
|leader_name3 = [[Valentina Matviyenko]]
|leader_title4 = [[Chairman of the State Duma]]
|leader_name4 = [[Sergey Naryshkin]]
|legislature = [[Federal Assembly (Russia)|Federal Assembly]]
|upper_house = [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]]
|lower_house = [[State Duma]]
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Russia|Formation]]
|established_event1 = Arrival of [[Rurik]], considered as a foundation event by the Russian authorities<ref>[http://www.1150russia.ru/ukaz-prezidenta-rf-o-prazdnovanii-1150-letiya-zarozhdeniya-rossiyskoy-gosudarstvennosti.html Указ Президента РФ "О праздновании 1150-летия зарождения российской государственности"] {{ru icon}}</ref>
|established_date1 = 862
|established_event2 = [[Kievan Rus']]
|established_date2 = 882
|established_event3 = [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]]
|established_date3 = 1283
|established_event4 = [[Tsardom of Russia]]
|established_date4 = 16 January 1547
|established_event5 = [[Russian Empire]]
|established_date5 = 22 October 1721
|established_event6 = [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]]
|established_date6 = 6 November 1917
|established_event7 = [[Soviet Union]]
|established_date7 = 10 December 1922
|established_event8 = Russian Federation
|established_date8 = 25 December 1991
|established_event9 = Adoption of the current Constitution of Russia
|established_date9 = 12 December 1993
|area_km2 = 17,098,242 (Crimea not included)
|area_sq_mi = 6,592,800 (Crimea not included)
|area_rank = 1st
|area_magnitude = 1 E13
|percent_water = 13<ref name=gen>{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archivedate=28 July 2011 |work=Federal State Statistics Service |accessdate=5 April 2008}}</ref>&nbsp;{{small|(including swamps)}}
|population_estimate = 143,975,923<ref name=Gks/> (Crimea not included)
{{refn|name="Popnote"|When including the [[Republic of Crimea]] and [[Sevastopol]], the total population of Russia rises to 146,270,033.<ref name=Gks>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/prpopul2015.xls|format=XLS|script-title=ru:Предварительная оценка численности населения на 1 января 2015 года и в среднем за 2014 год|trans-title=Preliminary population estimates on 1 January 2015, and the average for 2014|language=ru|publisher=Federal State Statistical Service|accessdate=8 April 2015}}</ref>}}
|population_estimate_year = 2015
|population_estimate_rank = 9th
|population_density_km2 = 8.4
|population_density_sq_mi = 21.5
|population_density_rank = 217th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2015
|GDP_PPP = $3.458 trillion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=83&pr.y=16&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=193%2C273%2C223%2C156%2C924%2C922%2C132%2C184%2C134%2C534%2C536%2C136%2C158%2C112%2C111%2C542&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|publisher=IMF|date=2015}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank = 6th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $24,067<ref name=imf3>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=24&pr.y=4&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=922&s=NGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|publisher=}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 53rd
|GDP_nominal = $1.176 trillion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_rank = 15th
|GDP_nominal_year = 2015
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $8,184<ref name=imf3/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 74th
|Gini_year = 2012
|Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|Gini = 42 <!--number only-->
|Gini_ref =<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of family income – Gini index |work=The World Factbook |publisher=CIA |accessdate=5 January 2014}}</ref>
|Gini_rank = 83rd
|HDI_year = 2013<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
|HDI_change = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
|HDI = 0.778 <!--number only-->
|HDI_ref =<ref name="HDI">{{cite web|format=PDF|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-summary-en.pdf|title=2014 Human Development Report Summary|date=2014|accessdate=27 July 2014|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|pages=21–25}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 57th
|currency = [[Russian ruble]] (₽)
|currency_code = RUB
|utc_offset = +2 to +12
|date_format = dd.mm.yyyy
|drives_on = right
|calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Russia|+7]]
|cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.ru]] |[[.su]] |[[.рф]]}}
|footnote_a = The Crimean Peninsula is [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262|recognized]] as territory of [[Ukraine]] by most of the international community, but is de facto [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|administered]] by Russia.<ref>{{cite web|last=Taylor|first=Adam|title=Crimea has joined the ranks of the world's 'gray areas.' Here are the others on that list.|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2014/03/22/crimea-has-joined-the-ranks-of-the-worlds-gray-areas-here-are-the-others-on-that-list/|publisher=The Washington Post|accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref>
}}

'''Russia''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Russia.ogg|ˈ|r|ʌ|ʃ|ə|}}; {{lang-rus|Россия|Rossiya|rɐˈsʲijə|Ru-Россия.ogg}}), also officially known as the '''Russian Federation'''<ref>"The names Russian Federation and Russia shall be equal". {{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |work=(Article 1) |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-02.htm |accessdate=25 June 2009}}</ref> ({{lang-rus|Российская Федерация|r=Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|p=rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|a=Ru-Rossiyskaya Federatsiya.ogg}}), is a country in northern [[Eurasia]].<ref name=britannica>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia |title=Russia |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=31 January 2008}}</ref> It is a [[federation|federal]] [[semi-presidential]] republic. At {{convert|17075400|km2|mi2}}, Russia is the [[largest country in the world]], covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the world's ninth [[List of countries and dependencies by population|most populous nation]] with nearly 144&nbsp;million people in November 2014.<ref name="gks.ru">{{cite paper|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217163834/http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B14_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg//%3Cextid%3E/%3Cstoragepath%3E::%7Cdk11/8-0.doc |script-title=ru:Демография |trans-title=Demographics |language=Russian |format=DOC |publisher= |date= |accessdate=20 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="Popnote" />

Extending across the entirety of [[North Asia|northern Asia]] and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans [[Time in Russia|nine time zones]] and incorporates a wide range of [[Environment of Russia|environments]] and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia [[borders of Russia|shares land borders]] with [[Norway]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]] (both with [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]), [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[China]], [[Mongolia]], and [[North Korea]]. It shares [[maritime border]]s with [[Japan]] by the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and the [[U.S. state]] of [[Alaska]] across the [[Bering Strait]].

The nation's history began with that of the [[East Slavs]], who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia?anchor=ref422350|title=Russia|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=31 January 2008}}</ref> Founded and ruled by a [[Varangian]] warrior elite and their descendants, the [[medieval]] state of [[Rus (state)|Rus]] arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]],<ref name=Curtis/> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined [[Russian culture]] for the [[Millennium of Russia|next millennium]].<ref name=Curtis>{{cite web|last=Excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.)|title=Russia: A Country Study: Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods|publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|year=1998|url=http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/Kievan.html|accessdate=20 July 2007}}</ref> Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the [[Mongol invasion of Rus'|Mongol invasion]] and became tributaries of the nomadic [[Golden Horde]].<ref>[[Michael Prawdin]] and Gérard Chaliand, ''The Mongol Empire: Its Rise and Legacy'' (2005) pp.&nbsp;512–550</ref> The [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of [[Kievan Rus']]. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and [[Russian explorers|exploration]] to become the [[Russian Empire]], which was the third [[largest empire]] in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to [[Russian Alaska|Alaska]] in North America.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=41|issue=3|pages=475–504|year= 1997|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Peter Turchin|author2=Thomas D. Hall|author3=Jonathan M. Adams|format=PDF|url=http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070222011511/http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol12/number2/pdf/jwsr-v12n2-tah.pdf|archivedate=22 February 2007|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|publisher=Journal of World-Systems Research, Vol. 12 (no. 2)|pages=219–229|date=2006}}</ref>

Following the [[Russian Revolution]], the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] became the largest and leading constituent of the [[Soviet Union]], the world's first constitutionally [[socialist state]] and a recognized superpower,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Jonathan R. Adelman|author2=Cristann Lea Gibson|title=Contemporary Soviet Military Affairs: The Legacy of World War&nbsp;II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XXcVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4+|accessdate=15 June 2012|date=1 July 1989|publisher=Unwin Hyman|isbn=978-0-04-445031-3|page=4}}</ref> which played [[Eastern Front (World War II)|a decisive role]] in the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in [[World War&nbsp;II]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Weinberg, G. L.|title=A World at Arms: A Global History of World War&nbsp;II|isbn=0-521-55879-4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=264|year=1995}}</ref><ref>Rozhnov, Konstantin, "[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4508901.stm Who won World War&nbsp;II?]". BBC.</ref> The Soviet era saw some of the [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|most significant technological achievements]] of the 20th century, including the world's [[Sputnik|first human-made satellite]], and the [[Yuri Gagarin|first man in space]]. Following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991, the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality (the sole [[Succession of states|successor state]]) of the [[Government of the Soviet Union|Union state]].<ref name=uk/>

The [[Russian economy]] ranks as the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|fifteenth largest]] by [[nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|sixth largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]] in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=83&pr.y=16&sy=2015&ey=2015&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=193%2C273%2C223%2C156%2C924%2C922%2C132%2C184%2C134%2C534%2C536%2C136%2C158%2C112%2C111%2C542&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|publisher=IMF|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref> Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources, the largest reserves in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.ru/en/?module=pages&action=view&id=1|title=Commission of the Russian Federation for UNESCO: Panorama of Russia|publisher=Unesco.ru|accessdate=29 October 2010}}</ref> have made it one of the largest [[oil producer|producers of oil]] and [[natural gas producer|natural gas]] globally.<ref name=IEA-Oil/><ref name=cia-gas/> The country is one of the five [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|recognized]] [[nuclear weapons states]] and possesses the [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction]].<ref name=fas/> Russia was the world's second biggest exporter of major arms in 2010-14, according to [[SIPRI]] data.<ref name="sipri1">{{cite web|title=Trends in International Arms Transfer, 2014|url=http://books.sipri.org/product_info?c_product_id=495|website=www.sipri.org|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|accessdate=18 March 2015|ref=SIPRI Fact Sheet, March 2015}}</ref>

Russia is a [[great power]] and a [[Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council|permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]], a member of the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC), the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE), and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS), the [[Collective Security Treaty Organization]] (CSTO) and one of the 5 members of the [[Eurasian Economic Union]] (EEU), along with [[Armenia]], [[Belarus]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]].

==Etymology==<!-- linked -->
{{Main|Rus' people|Rus (name)}}

The name ''Russia'' is derived from [[Kievan Rus'|Rus]], a medieval state populated mostly by the [[East Slavs]]. However, this proper name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Русская Земля" (russkaya zemlya), which can be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of Rus'". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as ''Kievan Rus''' by modern historiography. The [[Rus (name)|name ''Rus'']] itself comes from [[Rus people]], a group of [[Varangians]] (possibly [[Swedes (Germanic tribe)|Swedish]] [[Viking]]s)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Russia |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/rus |title=Rus – definition of Rus by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref> who founded the state of [[Kievan Rus|Rus]] (Русь).

An old Latin version of the name Rus' was [[Ruthenia]], mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the [[Byzantine Greek]] designation of the Kievan Rus', Ρωσσία ''Rossía''—spelt Ρωσία (''Rosía'' {{IPA-el|roˈsia|pron}}) in [[Modern Greek]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Russians: The People of Europe |last=Milner-Gulland |first=R. R. |year=1997 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=0-631-21849-1 |pages=1–4 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=BgJjHFwmj2UC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

The standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is "[[Russians]]".

==History==
{{Main|History of Russia}}

===Early periods===
{{Further|Eurasian nomads|Scythia|Bosporan Kingdom|Goths|Khazars|East Slavs}}
[[File:IE expansion.png|thumb|right|[[Kurgan hypothesis]]: [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] as the [[urheimat]] of [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European peoples]]]]

In prehistoric times the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of [[nomadic pastoralists]].<ref name=Belinskij>{{Cite journal|author=Belinskij A, Härke, H|title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo|journal=Archeology|volume=52|issue=2|year=1999|url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html|archivedate=10 June 2008|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such places as [[Ipatovo kurgan|Ipatovo]],<ref name=Belinskij/> [[Sintashta]],<ref>{{Cite book|author=Drews, Robert|author-link=Robert Drews|title=Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|page=50|isbn=0-415-32624-9}}</ref> [[Arkaim]],<ref>{{cite web|author=Koryakova, L.|title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture|publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN)|url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html|accessdate=20 July 2007}}</ref> and [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]],<ref>{{cite web|title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden"|work=Transcript|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> which bear the earliest known traces of [[Horses in warfare|mounted warfare]], a key feature in the nomadic way of life.

In [[classical antiquity]], the [[Pontic Steppe]] was known as Scythia. Beginning in the 8th century BC, [[Ancient Greek]] traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in [[Tanais]] and [[Phanagoria]]. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled on the western part of the [[Caspian Sea]], where their [[Roman empire|empire]] stretched towards the east.{{dubious|date=May 2015}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Jacobson, E.|title=The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World|publisher=Brill|year=1995|page=38|isbn=90-04-09856-9}}</ref> In 3rd–4th centuries AD a semi-legendary Gothic kingdom of [[Oium]] existed in Southern Russia until it was overrun by [[Huns]]. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{Cite book|author=Tsetskhladze, G. R.|title=The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology|publisher=F. Steiner|year=1998|page=48|isbn=3-515-07302-7}}</ref> was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes, such as the Huns and [[Pannonian Avars|Eurasian Avars]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Turchin, P.|title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2003|pages=185–186|isbn=0-691-11669-5}}</ref> A [[Turkic people]], the Khazars, ruled the lower [[Volga]] basin steppes between the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s until the 10th century.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Christian, D.|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|pages=286–288|isbn=0-631-20814-3}}</ref>

The ancestors of modern [[Russians]] are the [[Slavic tribes]], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the [[Pinsk Marshes]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Barford, P. M.|title=The Early Slavs|publisher=Cornell University Press|pages=15–16|isbn=0-8014-3977-9|year=2001}}</ref> The East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from [[Kiev]] toward present-day [[Suzdal]] and [[Murom]] and another from [[Polotsk]] toward [[Novgorod]] and [[Rostov]]. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<ref>{{Cite book|author=Christian, D.|title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|year=1998|pages=6–7}}</ref> and slowly but peacefully{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} assimilated the native [[Finno-Ugric peoples]], including the [[Merya]], the [[Muromians]], and the [[Meshchera]].

===Kievan Rus'===
{{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of early East Slavic states}}
[[File:Kievan Rus en.jpg|thumb|Kievan Rus' in the 11th century]]
The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of [[Varangians]], the traders, warriors and settlers from the Baltic Sea region. Primarily they were [[Vikings]] of [[Scandinavia]]n origin, who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic [[From the Varangians to the Greeks|to the Black]] [[Volga trade route|and Caspian]] Seas.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Obolensky, D.|title=Byzantium and the Slavs|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=1994|page=42|isbn=0-88141-008-X}}</ref> According to the [[Primary Chronicle]], a Varangian from [[Rus' people]], named [[Rurik]], was elected ruler of [[Novgorod]] in 862. In 882 his successor [[Oleg of Novgorod|Oleg]] ventured south and conquered [[Kiev]],<ref>{{Cite book|author=Thompson, J.W.; Johnson, E.N.|title=An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300–1500|publisher=W. W. Norton & Co.|year=1937|page=268|isbn=0-415-34699-1}}</ref> which had been previously paying tribute to the [[Khazars]], founding Kievan Rus'. Oleg, Rurik's son [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]] and Igor's son [[Sviatoslav I of Kiev|Sviatoslav]] subsequently subdued all local [[East Slavs|East Slavic]] tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the [[Khazar khaganate]] and launched several military expeditions to [[Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus'|Byzantium]] and [[Caspian expeditions of the Rus'|Persia]].

In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ukraine: Security Assistance|publisher=U.S. Department of State|url=http://www.state.gov/t/pm/64851.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> The reigns of [[Vladimir the Great]] (980–1015) and his son [[Yaroslav the Wise]] (1019–1054) constitute the [[Golden Age]] of Kiev, which saw [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|the acceptance of]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] from [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] and the creation of the first East Slavic written [[legal code]], the ''[[Russkaya Pravda]]''.

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the [[Kipchaks]] and the [[Pechenegs]], caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as [[Zalesye]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Klyuchevsky, V.|title=The course of the Russian history|volume=1|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=5-244-00072-1|year=1987|publisher=Myslʹ}}</ref>

[[File:Lebedev baptism.jpg|left|thumb|''The [[Baptism of Kievans]]'', by [[Klavdy Lebedev]]]]
The age of [[feudalism]] and decentralization was marked by constant in-fighting between members of the [[Rurik Dynasty]] that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] in the north-east, [[Novgorod Republic]] in the north-west and [[Galicia-Volhynia]] in the south-west.

Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the [[Mongol invasion of Rus'|Mongol invasion]] of 1237–40<ref>{{Cite book|author=Hamm, M.F.|title=Kiev: A Portrait, 1800–1917|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-02585-1|year=1995}}</ref> that resulted in the destruction of Kiev<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |title=The Destruction of Kiev |publisher=Tspace.library.utoronto.ca |accessdate=19 January 2011}}{{dead link|date=April 2015}}</ref> and the death of about half the population of Rus'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parallelsixty.com/history-russia.shtml|title=History of Russia from Early Slavs history and Kievan Rus to Romanovs dynasty|publisher=Parallelsixty.com|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> The invading Mongol elite, together with their conquered Turkic subjects (Cumans, Kipchaks, Bulgars), became known as [[Tatars]], forming the state of the [[Golden Horde]], which pillaged the Russian principalities; the Mongols ruled the [[Cumania|Cuman-Kipchak confederation]] and [[Volga Bulgaria]] (modern-day southern and central expanses of Russia) for over two centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Рыбаков, Б. А.|title=Ремесло Древней Руси|year=1948|pages=525–533, 780–781}}</ref>

Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<ref name=Curtis/> The Novgorod together with [[Pskov]] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the [[Mongol yoke]] and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Prince [[Alexander Nevsky]], Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the [[Battle of the Neva]] in 1240, as well as the [[Northern Crusades|Germanic crusaders]] in the [[Battle of the Ice]] in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.

===Grand Duchy of Moscow===
{{Main|Grand Duchy of Moscow}}
[[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|[[Sergius of Radonezh]] blessing [[Dmitry Donskoy]] in [[Trinity Sergius Lavra]], before the [[Battle of Kulikovo]], depicted in a painting by [[Ernst Lissner]]]]

The most powerful state to eventually arise after the destruction of Kievan Rus' was the Grand Duchy of Moscow ("Moscovy" in the Western chronicles), initially a part of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]]. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the Central Rus' in the early 14th century, gradually becoming the main leading force in the process of the Rus' lands' reunification and expansion of Russia.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Moscow's last rival, the [[Novgorod Republic]], prospered as the chief [[fur trade]] center and the easternmost port of the [[Hanseatic League]].

Times remained difficult, with frequent [[Mongol-Tatar raids]] and [[agriculture]] suffering from the beginning of the [[Little Ice Age]]. As in the rest of Europe, [[plague (disease)|plague]] was a frequent occurrence between 1350 and 1490.<ref name="Byrne p.62" /> However, because of the lower population density and better hygiene (widespread practicing of [[banya (sauna)|banya]], the wet steam bath), the death rate from plague was not as severe as in Western Europe,<ref name=banya>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121130084214/http://sauna-banya.ru/ist.html The history of banya and sauna] {{ru icon}}</ref> and population numbers recovered by 1500.<ref name="Byrne p.62">"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=yw3HmjRvVQMC&pg=PA62 Black Death]''". Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004). p. 62. ISBN 0-313-32492-1</ref>

Led by Prince [[Dmitry Donskoy]] of Moscow and helped by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including its formerly strong rivals such as [[Principality of Tver|Tver]] and [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]].

[[Ivan&nbsp;III]] ("the Great") finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde, consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first to take the title "Grand Duke of all the Russias".<ref>{{cite web|author=May, T.|title=Khanate of the Golden Horde|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607055652/http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html|archivedate=7 June 2008|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> After the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, Moscow [[Third Rome|claimed succession to the legacy]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Ivan&nbsp;III married [[Sophia Palaiologina]], the niece of the last [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Constantine&nbsp;XI]], and made the Byzantine [[double-headed eagle]] his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.

===Tsardom of Russia===
{{Main|Tsardom of Russia}}
[[File:Ivan the Terrible (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright|right|Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible]] by [[Victor Vasnetsov]]]]
In development of the [[Third Rome]] ideas, the Grand Duke [[Ivan&nbsp;IV]] (the "Terrible")<ref>Frank D. McConnell. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature.] [[Oxford University Press]], 1979. ISBN 0-19-502572-5; p. 78: "But Ivan&nbsp;IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, ''Ivan Groznyi'', "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome", is precisely a man who has become a legend"</ref> was officially crowned the first [[Tsar]] ("[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ([[Sudebnik of 1550]]), established the first Russian feudal representative body ([[Zemsky Sobor]]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|pages=562–604|volume=6|isbn=5-17-002142-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|author=Skrynnikov, R.|title=Ivan the Terrible|publisher=Academic Intl Pr|year=1981|page=219|isbn=0-87569-039-4}}</ref>

During his long reign, Ivan the Terrible nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of the disintegrated [[Golden Horde]]): [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] along the [[Volga River]], and the [[Siberian Khanate]] in southwestern Siberia. Thus, by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a [[multiethnic]], [[Religious denomination|multidenominational]] and [[transcontinental state]].

However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful [[Livonian War]] against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=6|pages=751–908|isbn=5-17-002142-9}}</ref> At the same time, the Tatars of the [[Crimean Khanate]], the only remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid Southern Russia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Eizo Matsuki|url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501041101/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf|archivedate=1 May 2011|title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves.|publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University|format=PDF|date= |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> In an effort to restore the Volga khanates, Crimeans and their [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] allies [[Russo-Crimean Wars|invaded central Russia]] and were even able to [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burn down parts of Moscow]] in 1571.<ref>{{cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=6|pages=751–809|isbn=5-17-002142-9}}</ref> But in the next year the large invading army was thoroughly defeated by Russians in the [[Battle of Molodi]], forever eliminating the threat of an Ottoman–Crimean expansion into Russia. The [[Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands|slave raids of Crimeans]], however, did not cease until the late 17th century though the construction of new fortification lines across Southern Russia, such as the [[Great Abatis Line]], constantly narrowed the area accessible to incursions.<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Brian Glyn Williams]]|title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire|url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf|work=[[The Jamestown Foundation]]|format=PDF|year=2013|page=27}}</ref>

[[File:Minin&Pogjarsky 2.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Monument to Minin and Pozharsky]] in Moscow]]
The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient [[Rurik Dynasty]] in 1598, and in combination with the [[famine of 1601–03]]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Borisenkov, E., Pasetski, V.|title=The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena|isbn=5-244-00212-0|page=190}}</ref> led to civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the [[Time of Troubles]] in the early 17th century.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=7|pages=461–568|isbn=5-17-002142-9}}</ref> The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant [[Kuzma Minin]] and Prince [[Dmitry Pozharsky]]. The [[Romanov Dynasty]] acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of [[Cossacks]]. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling [[pirates]] and [[pioneers of the New World]]. In 1648, the peasants of Ukraine joined the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]] in reaction to the social and religious oppression they had been suffering under Polish rule. In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, [[Aleksey&nbsp;I]]. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|Russo-Polish War]]. Finally, Ukraine was split along the [[Dnieper River]], leaving the western part, [[right-bank Ukraine]], under Polish rule and the eastern part ([[Left-bank Ukraine]] and [[Kiev]]) under Russian rule. Later, in 1670–71, the [[Don Cossacks]] led by [[Stenka Razin]] initiated a major uprising in the [[Volga Region]], but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.

In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable furs and ivory. [[Russian explorers]] pushed eastward primarily along the [[Siberian River Routes]], and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on the [[Chukchi Peninsula]], along the [[Amur River]], and on the Pacific coast. In 1648, the [[Bering Strait]] between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by [[Fedot Popov]] and [[Semyon Dezhnyov]].

===Imperial Russia===
{{Main|Russian Empire}}
[[File:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Peter the Great]], the first [[Emperor of Russia]]]]
Under [[Peter the Great]], Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the [[Great Northern War]], forcing it to cede West [[Karelia]] and [[Ingria]] (two regions lost by Russia in the [[Time of Troubles]]),<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=9, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/09_01.html|isbn=5-17-002142-9|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> as well as [[Governorate of Estonia|Estland]] and [[Livland]], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Solovyov, S.|title=History of Russia from the Earliest Times|publisher=AST|year=2001|volume=15, ch.1|url=http://militera.lib.ru/common/solovyev1/15_01.html}}</ref> On the [[Baltic Sea]] Peter founded a new capital called [[Saint Petersburg]], later known as Russia's "Window to Europe". [[Peter the Great's reforms]] brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.

The reign of Peter&nbsp;I's daughter [[Elizabeth of Russia|Elizabeth]] in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–63). During this conflict Russia annexed [[East Prussia]] for a while and even took Berlin. However, upon Elisabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] by pro-Prussian [[Peter&nbsp;III of Russia]].

[[Catherine the Great|Catherine&nbsp;II]] ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of [[Russian Enlightenment]]. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the [[Partitions of Poland]], pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] against [[Ottoman Turkey]], Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the [[Crimean Khanate]]. As a result of victories over [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran]] through the [[Russo-Persian Wars]], by the first half of the 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in [[Transcaucasia]] and the [[North Caucasus]], forcing the latter to irrevocably cede what is nowadays [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]] to Russia.<ref>Timothy C. Dowling [https://books.google.nl/books?id=KTq2BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728&dq=russo+persian+war+1804-1813&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=QnOXVJXpCcz7UPevhPAK&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=russo%20persian%20war%201804-1813&f=false ''Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond''] pp 728-729 ABC-CLIO, 2 December 2014 ISBN 1598849484</ref><ref>John F. Baddeley, "The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus", Longman, Green and Co., London: 1908, p. 90</ref> This continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander&nbsp;I's]] (1801–25) wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of [[Bessarabia]] from the Ottomans in 1812. At the same time, Russians [[Russian America|colonized Alaska]] and even founded settlements in California, such as [[Fort Ross]].

In 1803–1806, the [[first Russian circumnavigation]] was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages. In 1820 [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen|a Russian expedition]] discovered the continent of [[Antarctica]].

In alliances with various European countries, Russia fought against [[Napoleon]]'s France. The [[French invasion of Russia]] at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold [[Russian winter]] led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European [[Grande Armée]] perished.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ruling the Empire|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/5.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Led by [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] and [[Barclay de Tolly]], the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the [[war of the Sixth Coalition]], finally entering Paris. Alexander&nbsp;I headed Russia's delegation at the [[Congress of Vienna]] that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.

The officers of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive [[Decembrist revolt]] of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of [[Nicolas&nbsp;I]] (1825–55), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the [[Crimean War]]. Between 1847 and 1851, about one million people died of Asiatic [[cholera]].<ref>Geoffrey A. Hosking (2001). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=oh-5AAmboMUC&pg=PA9 Russia and the Russians: a history]''". Harvard University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-674-00473-6</ref>

Nicholas's successor [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander&nbsp;II]] (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the [[emancipation reform of 1861]]. These ''Great Reforms'' spurred industrialization and modernized the Russian army, which had successfully liberated Bulgaria from Ottoman rule in the [[1877–78 Russo-Turkish War]].

[[File:Tsar nikolai.jpg|thumb|Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia]]]]
The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander&nbsp;II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and the reign of his son
[[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander&nbsp;III]] (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, [[Nicholas&nbsp;II]] (1894–1917), was unable to prevent the events of the Russian [[Revolution of 1905]], triggered by the unsuccessful [[Russo-Japanese War]] and the demonstration incident known as [[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the [[freedom of speech|freedoms of speech]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], the legalization of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the [[State Duma of the Russian Empire]]. The [[Stolypin reform|Stolypin agrarian reform]] led to a massive peasant migration and settlement into [[Siberia]]. More than four million settlers arrived in that region between 1906 and 1914.<ref>N. M. Dronin, E.&nbsp;G. Bellinger (2005). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9a5j_JL6cqIC&pg=PA38 Climate dependence and food problems in Russia, 1900–1990: The interaction of climate and agricultural policy and their effect on food problems]''. Central European University Press. p. 38. ISBN 963-7326-10-3</ref>

In 1914, Russia entered [[World War&nbsp;I]] in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia, and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its [[Triple Entente]] allies. In 1916, the [[Brusilov Offensive]] of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of [[Austria-Hungary]]. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, [[World War I casualties|high casualties]], and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917, carried out in two major acts.

===Revolution and Russian Republic===
{{Main|February Revolution|Russian Provisional Government|Russian Republic}}
[[File:Lenintribune.jpg|right|thumb|upright|[[Vladimir Lenin]], the leader of the [[Great October Socialist Revolution]]]]
The [[February Revolution]] forced Nicholas&nbsp;II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and [[Ipatiev House|later executed]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]]. An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside, the [[Petrograd Soviet]], wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called ''[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the [[October Revolution]], led by [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]], overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the Soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first [[socialist state]].

===Soviet Russia and civil war===
{{Main|October Revolution|Russian Civil War|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic}}
{{See also|Soviet Russia (disambiguation)|Russian Constitution of 1918}}
[[File:Russia-2000-stamp-Tatlin Tower and Worker and Kolkhoz Woman by Vera Mukhina.jpg|thumb|The symbols of the early Soviet era: [[Tatlin's Tower]] project and the giant ''[[Worker and Kolkhoz Woman]]'' sculpture group]]
Following the October Revolution, a [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] broke out between the [[anti-Communist]] [[White movement]] and the new [[Workers' council|Soviet]] regime with its [[Red Army]]. Bolshevist Russia lost its Ukrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] that concluded hostilities with the [[Central Powers]] of World War&nbsp;I. The [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]] launched an unsuccessful [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|military intervention]] in support of anti-Communist forces. In the meantime both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the [[Red Terror]] and [[White Terror (Russia)|White Terror]]. By the end of the civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. Millions became [[White émigré]]s,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=uUsLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3 Transactions of the American Philosophical Society]. James E. Hassell (1991), p. 3. ISBN 0-87169-817-X</ref> and the [[Povolzhye famine]] of 1921 claimed up to 5&nbsp;million victims.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121219101057/http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/5rfhjy.htm Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921], International Committee of the Red Cross</ref>

===Soviet Union===
{{Main|Soviet Union}}
{{See also|Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|History of the Soviet Union|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic}}
[[File:Soviet Union - Russian SFSR (1922).svg|thumb|The Russian SFSR as a part of the USSR in 1922.]]
[[File:Soviet Union - Russian SFSR (1936).svg|thumb|The Russian SFSR as a part of the USSR in 1936, after intra-Soviet territorial changes.]]
The [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (called ''Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic'' at the time) together with the [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukrainian]], [[Byelorussian SSR|Byelorussian]], and [[Transcaucasian SSR|Transcaucasion Soviet Socialist Republics]], [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|formed]] the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (USSR), or Soviet Union, on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 [[republics of the USSR|republics that would make up the USSR]], the largest in size and over half of the total USSR population was the Russian SFSR, which came to dominate the union for its entire 69-year history.

Following Lenin's death in 1924, a [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union#List of troikas|troika]] was designated to govern the Soviet Union. However, [[Joseph Stalin]], an elected [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of the Communist Party]], managed to suppress all opposition groups within the party and consolidate power in his hands. [[Leon Trotsky]], the main proponent of [[world revolution]], was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of [[Socialism in One Country]] became the primary line. The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the [[Great Purge]], a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, during which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including [[Old Bolshevik|original party members]] and military leaders accused of coup d'état plots.<ref>Abbott Gleason (2009). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373 A Companion to Russian History]''. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. ISBN 1-4051-3560-3</ref>
[[File:Belomorkanal.png|right|thumb|Millions of Gulag inmates were forced to work on massive government projects such as the construction of the [[White Sea–Baltic Canal]], 1931–1933.]]
Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a [[planned economy]], industrialisation of the largely rural country, and [[Collectivization in the USSR|collectivization]] of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to [[Gulag|penal labor camps]],<ref name="Getty">Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence". ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017–49.</ref> including many political convicts for their opposition to Stalin's rule; millions were [[population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported and exiled]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Getty"/> The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the [[Soviet famine of 1932–1933]].<ref>[[R.&nbsp;W. Davies]], [[S.&nbsp;G. Wheatcroft]] (2004). ''The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–33'', p. 401.</ref> The Soviet Union, though with a heavy price, was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.

The [[Appeasement]] policy of Great Britain and France towards [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Anschluss|annexation of Austria]] and [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia]] did not stem an increase in the power of [[Nazi Germany]] and initiated a threat of war to the Soviet Union.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} Around the same time, the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]] allied with the [[Empire of Japan]], a rival of the USSR in the Far East and an open enemy of the USSR in the [[Soviet–Japanese Border Wars]] in 1938–39.
[[File:RIAN archive 2153 After bombing.jpg|thumb|Citizens of [[Leningrad]] during the 872-day [[siege of Leningrad|siege]], in which about one million civilians died]]
In August 1939, after another failure of attempts to establish an anti-Nazi alliance with Britain and France,{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} the Soviet government decided to improve relations with Germany by concluding the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], pledging [[Non-aggression pact|non-aggression]] between the two countries and dividing their spheres of influence in Eastern Europe. While Hitler conquered Poland, France and other countries acted on single front at the start of [[World War&nbsp;II]], the USSR was able to build up its military and claim some of the former territories of the Russian Empire, Western Ukraine, [[Hertza region]] and Northern [[Bukovina]] as a result of the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]], [[Winter War]], [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|occupation of the Baltic states]] and [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina]].

[[File:Charkov-Belgorod.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet [[T-34/76]]s and infantry advance past a destroyed [[Panzer IV]]. [[Operation Polkovodets Rumyantsev|Kharkov, August 1943]]]]
On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<ref>{{cite web| title = World War&nbsp;II| publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica | accessdate =9 March 2008 | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II}}</ref> opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|largest theater of World War&nbsp;II]]. Although the [[Wehrmacht|German army]] had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the [[Battle of Moscow]]. Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in the winter of 1942–43,<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/648813/World-War-II | publisher =Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=12 March 2008|title=The Allies' first decisive successes: Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942 – February 1943}}</ref> and then in the [[Battle of Kursk]] in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the [[Siege of Leningrad]], in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.<ref>[http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110629173955/http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item1173696/?site_locale=en_GB The Legacy of the Siege of Leningrad, 1941–1995]. Cambridge University Press.</ref> Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as [[Georgy Zhukov]] and [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], Soviet forces took Eastern Europe in 1944–45 and [[Battle of Berlin|captured Berlin]] in May 1945. In August 1945 the [[Soviet Army]] [[Soviet-Japanese War (1945)|ousted the Japanese]] from China's [[Manchukuo]] and North Korea, contributing to the allied victory over Japan.

The 1941–45 period of World War&nbsp;II is known in Russia as the "[[Great Patriotic War (term)|Great Patriotic War]]". During this conflict, which included many of the [[List of battles by casualties|most lethal battle operations]] in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6&nbsp;million and 15.9&nbsp;million respectively,<ref>{{Cite book|author=Erlikman, V.|title=Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik|year=2004|id=Note: Estimates for Soviet World War&nbsp;II casualties vary between sources|isbn=5-93165-107-1|publisher=Russkai︠a︡ panorama|location=Moskva}}</ref> accounting for about a third of all [[World War&nbsp;II casualties]]. The full demographic loss to the Soviet peoples was even greater.<ref>Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=CDMVMqDvp4QC&pg=PA242 Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union]''. Harvard University Press. p. 242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9</ref> The [[Soviet economy]] and infrastructure suffered massive devastation which caused [[Soviet famine of 1946–47]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Reconstruction and Cold War|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/12.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged military superpower on the continent.
[[File:Sputnik asm.jpg|right|thumb|[[Sputnik&nbsp;1]] was the world's first artificial satellite.]]
The [[Red Army]] occupied Eastern and Central Europe after the war, including [[East Germany]] and part of [[Austria]]. Dependent socialist governments were installed in the [[Eastern Bloc]] satellite states. Becoming the world's second [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons power]], the USSR established the [[Warsaw Pact]] alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the [[Cold War]], with the United States and [[NATO]]. The Soviet Union supported revolutionary movements across the world, including the newly formed People's Republic of China, the [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] and, later on, the [[Republic of Cuba]]. Significant amounts of the Soviet resources were [[International relations within the Comecon|allocated in aid]] to the other socialist states.<ref>[http://rs6.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0391%29 Foreign trade] from ''A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)''. [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] project.</ref>

After Stalin's death and a short period of [[Collective leadership|collective rule]], new leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounced the [[cult of personality]] of Stalin and launched the policy of [[de-Stalinization]]. The penal labor system was reformed and many prisoners were released and rehabilitated (many of them posthumously).<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916205-2,00.html|work=TIME|accessdate=1 August 2008|title=Great Escapes from the Gulag|date=5 June 1978}}</ref> The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the [[Khrushchev Thaw]]. At the same time, tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. [[PGM-19 Jupiter|Jupiter missiles]] in Turkey and Soviet [[Cuban Missile Crisis|missiles in Cuba]].

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik&nbsp;1]]'', thus starting the [[Space Age]]. Russian [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human to orbit the Earth aboard ''[[Vostok&nbsp;1]]'' manned spacecraft on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]].

Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of [[Collectivity of leadership|collective rule]] ensued, until [[Leonid Brezhnev]] became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was designated later as the [[Era of Stagnation]], a period when economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The 1965 [[Kosygin reform]] aimed for partial [[decentralization]] of the [[Soviet economy]] and shifted the emphasis from [[heavy industry]] and weapons to [[light industry]] and [[consumer goods]] but was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.
[[File:Gorbachev and Reagan 1988-5.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Soviet General Secretary [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] in Red Square during the [[Moscow Summit (1988)|Moscow Summit]], 31 May 1988]]
In 1979, after a Communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Soviet forces entered]] that country at the request of the new regime. The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results. Ultimately, the Soviet Army was withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) in an attempt to end the [[Era of Stagnation|period of economic stagnation]] and to democratise the government. This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements. Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|accessdate=9 March 2008|title=1990 CIA World Factbook}}</ref> but during its last years it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in the money supply leading to inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.photius.com/countries/russia/economy/russia_economy_unforeseen_results_o~1315.html|title=Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform|publisher=The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook|accessdate=10 March 2008}}</ref>
[[File:Boris Yeltsin 19 August 1991-1.jpg|thumb|Incumbent Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] stands on a tank during the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August Coup of 1991]], two months after the [[Russian presidential election, 1991|presidential election]].]]
By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over, as the Baltic republics chose to secede from the Soviet Union. On 17 March, a [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|referendum]] was held, to which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of preserving the Soviet Union as a [[Union of Sovereign States|renewed federation]]. In August 1991, [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|a coup d'état attempt]] by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Despite the will expressed by the people, on 25 December 1991, the USSR [[dissolution of the Soviet Union|was dissolved]] into 15 [[post-Soviet states]].

===Russian Federation===
{{Main|History of Russia (1992–present)}}
[[File:Московский международный деловой центр «Москва-Сити» 14.07.2014.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow International Business Center]]]]
In June 1991, [[Boris Yeltsin]] became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, which became the independent Russian Federation in December of that year. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including [[Privatization in Russia|privatization]] and [[free trade|market and trade liberalization]] were undertaken,<ref name=OECD/> including radical changes along the lines of "[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]" as recommended by the United States and the [[International Monetary Fund]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/21/world/us-is-abandoning-shock-therapy-for-therussians.html|title= U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians|author=Sciolino, E.|work=New York Times|accessdate=20 January 2008|date=21 December 1993}}</ref> All this resulted in a major [[economic crisis]], characterized by a 50% decline in both GDP and industrial output between 1990–95.<ref name=OECD/><ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Economic Conditions in Mid-1996|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ru0119)|accessdate=4 March 2011}}</ref>

The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government. Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous [[capital flight]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)|work=BusinessWeek |url=http://www.businessweek.com/1999/99_48/b3657252.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services; the [[birth rate]] plummeted while the [[death rate]] skyrocketed.<ref name="TBTCTES106">{{cite book
|author= Walter C. Clemens
|title= The Baltic Transformed: Complexity Theory and European Security
|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield
|location=
|year= 2001
|page= 106
|isbn= 0-8476-9859-9
|oclc=
|doi=
}}</ref> Millions plunged into poverty, from a level of 1.5% in the late Soviet era to 39–49% by mid-1993.<ref name=worldbank>{{Cite book|author=Branko Milanovic|title=Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy|publisher=The World Bank|year=1998|pages=186–189}}</ref> The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jason Bush|title=What's Behind Russia's Crime Wave?|journal=BusinessWeek Journal|date=19 October 2006|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811233934/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/oct2006/gb20061019_110749_page_2.htm}}</ref>

The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the [[North Caucasus]], both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist [[Islamist]] insurrections. From the time [[Chechnya|Chechen]] separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an [[First Chechen War|intermittent guerrilla war]] has been fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. [[Terrorism in Russia|Terrorist attacks against civilians]] carried out by separatists, most notably the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] and [[Beslan school siege]], caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention.

Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia pays off USSR's entire debt, sets to become crediting country|publisher=Pravda.ru|url=http://english.pravda.ru/russia/economics/22-08-2006/84038-parisclub-0/|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> High budget deficits caused the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/aslund0108.pdf|title=Russia's Capitalist Revolution|author=A. Aslund|accessdate=28 March 2008|format=PDF}}</ref> and resulted in a further GDP decline.<ref name=OECD>{{cite web|title=Russian Federation|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/7/50/2452793.pdf|accessdate=24 February 2008|format=PDF}}</ref>
[[File:Vladimir Putin with Boris Yeltsin-5.jpg|thumb|[[Boris Yeltsin]] with [[Vladimir Putin]] and [[Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow|Patriarch Alexy II]]]]
On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, [[Vladimir Putin]], who then won [[Russian presidential election, 2000|the 2000 presidential election]]. Putin [[Second Chechen War|suppressed the Chechen insurgency]] although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. [[World oil market chronology from 2003|High oil prices]] and the initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption, and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.<ref name=cia/> While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally criticized by Western nations as undemocratic,<ref>{{cite web|author=Treisman, D|title=Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?|url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=16294|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041111074502/http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=16294|archivedate=11 November 2004|publisher=UCLA International Institute|accessdate=31 December 2007}}</ref> Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progress has won him widespread admiration in Russia.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Stone, N|title=No wonder they like Putin|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2994651.ece|work=The Times |location=UK |accessdate=31 December 2007|date=4 December 2007}}</ref>

On 2 March 2008, [[Dmitry Medvedev]] was elected President of Russia while Putin became [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]]. Putin returned to the presidency following the [[Russian presidential election, 2012|2012 presidential elections]], and Medvedev was appointed Prime Minister.

In 2014, after President [[Viktor Yanukovych]] of [[Ukraine]] fled as a result of a [[2014 Ukrainian revolution|revolution]], Putin requested and received authorization from the Russian Parliament to [[2014 Russian military intervention in Ukraine|deploy Russian troops to Ukraine]].<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.nbcnews.com/storyline/ukraine-crisis/ousted-ukrainian-president-asked-russian-troops-envoy-says-n43506 | title=Ousted Ukrainian President Asked For Russian Troops, Envoy Says | author=Reuters | date=3 March 2014 | publisher=NBC News | accessdate=21 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="BBCPutinDeploys">{{cite web|url= http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26400597|title=Putin to deploy Russian troops in Ukraine|publisher=BBC News|date=1 March 2014|accessdate=1 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="Radyuhin">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/world/russian-parliament-approves-use-of-force-in-crimea/article5739708.ece |title=Russian Parliament approves use of army in Ukraine|work=The Hindu|date=1 March 2014|first=Vladimir|last=Radyuhin|location=Chennai, India}}</ref><ref name="walker-the-guardian-2014-descend">{{cite news |last=Walker |first=Shaun |date=4 March 2014 |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/04/ukraine-crisis-russian-troops-crimea-john-kerry-kiev |title=Russian takeover of Crimea will not descend into war, says Vladimir Putin |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |accessdate=4 March 2014 }}</ref><ref name="bloomberg-news-2014-request">{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-03-04/russia-calls-ukraine-intervention-legal-citing-yanukovych-letter |title=Russia Stays in Ukraine as Putin Channels Yanukovych Request |first1=Sangwon |last1=Yoon |first2=Daryna |last2=Krasnolutska |first3=Kateryna |last3=Choursina |date=4 March 2014 |accessdate=5 March 2014 |newspaper=[[Bloomberg News]] }}</ref> Following a [[Crimean status referendum, 2014|Crimean referendum]] in which separation was favored by a large majority of voters but not accepted internationally,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26465962|title=Ukraine crisis: Crimea parliament asks to join Russia|work=BBC News|date=6 March 2014|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/cio/116313|title=OSCE|publisher=|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/UA/Ukraine_Report_15April2014.doc|title = Report on the human rights situation in Ukraine|date = 15 April 2014|publisher = [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.businessinsider.co.id/un-hints-russia-may-have-rigged-crimea-vote-2014-4/#.U2CVCPl_v38|title = The UN's Scathing Crimea Report Suggests Russia May Have Rigged Secession Vote|date = 11 April 2014|website = [[Business Insider]]|first = Harrison|last = Jacobs}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hungarianambiance.com/2014/03/jobbik-mep-bela-kovacs-crimean.html|title=Jobbik MEP Béla Kovács: The Crimean referendum is perfectly legitimate|publisher=hungarianambiance.com|date=16 March 2014|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref><ref>16 March 2014, David Herszenhornmarch, ''The New York Times'', "Crimea Votes to Secede From Ukraine as Russian Troops Keep Watch."</ref> the Russian leadership announced the annexation of Crimea by Russia. On 27 March the United Nations General Assembly voted in favor of a non-binding resolution opposing the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Russian annexation of Crimea]].<ref>"Backing Ukraine's territorial integrity, UN Assembly declares Crimea referendum invalid". UN News Centre. 27 March 2014. Retrieved 28 March 2014.</ref>

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Russia}}

===Governance===
[[File:Moscow Kremlin from Kamenny bridge.jpg|thumb|right|[[Moscow Kremlin]], the working residence of the [[President of Russia]]]]

According to the [[Constitution of Russia]], the country is a federation and [[semi-presidential]] republic, wherein the President is the [[head of state]]<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 80, §1)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> and the [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[representative democracy]], with the federal government composed of three branches:
* Legislative: The [[bicameral]] [[Federal Assembly of Russia]], made up of the 450-member [[State Duma]] and the 166-member [[Federation Council]], adopts [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]] and the power of [[impeachment]] of the President.
* Executive: The [[President of Russia|President]] is the [[Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation|Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces]], can veto [[legislative bill]]s before they become law, and appoints the [[Government of Russia]] (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
* [[Judiciary of Russia|Judiciary]]: The [[Constitutional Court of Russia|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Russia|Supreme Court]] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the President, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem [[unconstitutional]].

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 81, §3)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Ministries of the government are composed of the Premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). Leading political parties in Russia include [[United Russia]], the [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation|Communist Party]], the [[Political party LDPR|Liberal Democratic Party]], and [[A Just Russia]]. In 2013, Russia was ranked as 122nd of 167 countries in the [[Democracy Index]], compiled by [[The Economist]] Intelligence Unit,<ref name="wjp">{{cite web|format=PDF|url=http://pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/Democracy-Index-2012.pdf|title=Democracy at a standstill|publisher=[[World Justice Project]]|date=2013|accessdate=9 August 2014|page=7}}</ref> while the [[World Justice Project]] currently ranks Russia 80th of 99 countries surveyed in terms of rule of law.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Justice Project Rule of Law Index 2014|url=http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/#/index/RUS}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}
[[File:Continental Orgs Map.png|thumb|As a [[transcontinental country]], Russia is a member of both the [[Council of Europe]] (COE) and the [[Asia Cooperation Dialogue]].]]
[[File:Council of Europe (blue).svg|thumb|The Russian Federation became the 39th member state of the [[Council of Europe]] on 28 February 1996]]
[[File:SCO (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Member states, observers and partners of the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]]]]

The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as a [[successor state]] of the former [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=uk>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/russia/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016040108/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/russia/|archivedate=16 October 2009|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat in the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], membership in other international organisations, the rights and obligations under international treaties, and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 countries and has [[Russian embassies|144 embassies]]. The foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Kosachev. K|title=Russian Foreign Policy Vertical|publisher=Russia in Global Affairs|url=http://eng.globalaffairs.ru/number/n_3372|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref>

As the successor to a former superpower, Russia's geopolitical status has often been debated, particularly in relation to [[Polarity in international relations|unipolar and multipolar]] views on the global political system. While Russia is commonly accepted to be a [[great power]], in recent years it has been characterized by a number of world leaders,<ref>[http://articles.latimes.com/2009/sep/11/world/fg-russia-chavez11 Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez recognizes independence of breakaway Georgia republics] by Megan K. Stack. 9 September 2009</ref><ref>[http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110430182020/http://freevideo.rt.com/video/1759 Netanyahu declares Russia as superpower] Russia Today News 15 February 2010</ref> scholars,<ref>[http://georgiandaily.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=6527 Superpower Reborn] by [[Ronald Steel]]. New York Times, 24 August 2008</ref> commentators and politicians<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9079543725663390621 Russia is a Superpower CNN, US Senators telling the truth]{{Dead link|date=January 2014}} CNN News 30 August 2008</ref> as a currently reinstating or [[potential superpower]].<ref>Steven Rosefielde, [https://books.google.com/books?id=eC6HdSYZhRgC Russia in the 21st Century The Prodigal Superpower], Cambridge University Press, 2005 ISBN 0-521-83678-6</ref><ref>"[http://atlanticreview.org/archives/1160-Is-Russia-a-Superpower-Cold-War-II.html Is Russia a Superpower? Cold War&nbsp;II?]", ''[[Atlantic Review]]'', 25 August 2008.</ref><ref>"[http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/russia-s-strategy-what-s-looming-in-ukraine-is-more-threatening-than-georgia-a-584631.html What's Looming in Ukraine Is more Threatening than Georgia]", ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', 16 October 2008. Quote: "Nikonov: Russia is not a superpower and won't be one for the foreseeable future. But Russia is a great power. It was one, it is one and it will continue to be one."</ref>

As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country participates in the [[Quartet on the Middle East]] and the [[Six-party talks]] with North Korea. Russia is a member of the [[G8]] industrialized nations, the [[Council of Europe]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]]. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organisations such as the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], [[Eurasian Economic Community|EurAsEC]], [[Collective Security Treaty Organisation|CSTO]], and the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]].<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/int/sco.htm The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation] at Globalsecurity.org 27 April 2005</ref> Russia became the 39th member state of the Council of Europe in 1996.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/russian-federation;jsessionid=72C03060D9E7D3EB3C05D542C3E3E1E8|title=Russian Federation – Member state|publisher=Council of Europe|accessdate=28 April 2015}}</ref> In 1998, Russia ratified the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. The legal basis for EU relations with Russia is the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement, which came into force in 1997. The Agreement recalls the parties' shared respect for democracy and human rights, political and economic freedom and commitment to international peace and security.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/russia/eu_russia/political_relations/legal_framework/index_en.htm|title= Legal framework - The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement|publisher=Delegation of the European Union to Russia|date=13 February 2009|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref> In May 2003, the EU and Russia agreed to reinforce their cooperation on the basis of common values and shared interests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/russia/eu_russia/political_relations/political_framework/index_en.htm|title=Political framework - Europe and Russia: Building a Strategic Partnership|publisher=Delegation of the European Union to Russia|date=13 February 2009|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref> Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of [[EU-Russia Common Spaces]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ria.ru/politics/20041125/743119.html|title=Interview of official Ambassador of Russian Foreign Ministry on relations with the EU|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=30 June 2008|language=ru}}</ref> Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier relationship with the [[Russia-United States relations|United States]] and [[NATO-Russia relations|NATO]]. The [[NATO-Russia Council]] was established in 2002 to allow the United States, Russia and the 27 allies in NATO to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.<ref>{{cite web|title=NATO-Russia relations|publisher=NATO|url=http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/topic.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070411124719/http://www.nato.int/issues/nato-russia/topic.html|archivedate=11 April 2007|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref>

[[File:BRIC leaders in 2008.jpg|thumb|left|Leaders of the [[BRIC]] nations in 2008: (l-r) [[Manmohan Singh]] of India, [[Dmitry Medvedev]] of Russia, [[Hu Jintao]] of China and [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of Brazil]]
Russia maintains strong and positive relations with other [[BRIC|BRIC countries]]. [[India]] is the largest customer of Russian military equipment and the two countries share [[India–Russia relations|extensive defense and strategic relations]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/11/16/uk-russia-india-aircraftcarrier-idUKBRE9AF03820131116|title=Indian navy gets Russian carrier as it seeks to bolster military|newspaper=Ruetes|date=16 November 2013}}</ref> In recent years, the country has strengthened bilateral ties especially with the People's Republic of China by signing the [[2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship|Treaty of Friendship]] as well as building the [[Trans-Siberian oil pipeline]] and [[Yakutia–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline|gas pipeline from Siberia to China]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704082104575515543164948682|title=Russian Oil Route Will Open to China|first=Jeremy|last=Page|newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=26 September 2010|accessdate=28 September 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/01/01/russia-china-oil-idUSLDE6BU0CK20110101?rpc=401& |title=Russia in milestone oil pipeline supply to China |agency=Reuters |accessdate=21 March 2011 |date=1 January 2011}}</ref>

An important aspect of Russia's relations with the West is the criticism of Russia's political system and [[human rights in Russia|human rights]] management (including [[LGBT rights in Russia|LGBT rights]], [[media freedom in Russia|media freedom]], and reports about [[List of journalists killed in Russia|killed journalists]]) by the Western governments, the mass media and the leading democracy and human rights [[wikt:watchdog|watchdogs]]. In particular, such organisations as the [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/russia/report-2009|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100713010532/http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/russia/report-2009|archivedate=13 July 2010|title=Amnesty International report on Russia|publisher=Amnesty International|accessdate=11 July 2010}}</ref><ref>Human Rights Watch on Russia and Chechnya [http://www.hrw.org/en/video/2008/04/06/russia-trial HTW.org]</ref> [[Freedom House]], an international organisation funded by the United States, ranks Russia as "not free", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2009/russia?page=22&year=2009&country=7689#.VT7KCuH9ycw|title=Annual report Russia|publisher=Freedom House|date=10 May 2004|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> Russian authorities dismiss these claims and especially criticise Freedom House. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has called the 2006 ''[[Freedom in the World]]'' report "prefabricated", stating that the human rights issues have been turned into a political weapon in particular by the United States. The ministry also claims that such organisations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of ''"isolated facts that of course can be found in any country"'' into ''dominant tendencies''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/21jun2006/fh.html|title=In Russian: МИД России назвал доклад Freedom House "дубиной" в руках Вашингтона|publisher=Newsru.com|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Russian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Sukhoi Su-35S, Su-34 and T-50 flying together.jpg|thumb|Modern Russian aircraft [[Sukhoi Su-35]], [[Sukhoi Su-34]] and [[Sukhoi PAK FA]]]]
The Russian military is divided into the [[Russian Ground Forces|Ground Forces]], [[Russian Navy|Navy]], and [[Russian Air Force|Air Force]]. There are also three independent arms of service: [[Strategic Missile Troops]], [[Russian Aerospace Defence Forces|Aerospace Defence Forces]], and the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Troops]]. In 2006, the military had 1.037&nbsp;million personnel on active duty.<ref name=iiss>{{Cite journal|format=PDF|journal=International Institute for Strategic Studies|title=Overview of the major Asian Powers|page=31|url=http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/060626_asia_balance_powers.pdf|accessdate=27 January 2008}}</ref> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be [[conscription|drafted]] for a year of service in Armed Forces.<ref name=cia/>

Russia has [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]] in the world. It has the second largest fleet of [[ballistic missile submarine]]s and is the only country apart from the United States with a modern [[strategic bomber]] force.<ref name=fas>{{cite web|title=Status of Nuclear Powers and Their Nuclear Capabilities|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|url=https://fas.org/nuke/guide/summary.htm |date=March 2008 |accessdate=19 March 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.komonews.com/news/national/28390779.html Russia pilots proud of flights to foreign shores] by David Nowak. The Associated Press, 15 September 2008</ref> Russia's [[tank]] force is the largest in the world, its surface navy and air force are among the largest ones.

The country has a large and fully indigenous [[Defense industry of Russia|arms industry]], producing most of its own military equipment with only few types of weapons imported. Russia is one of the world's top supplier of arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<ref>{{cite web|title=US drives world military spending to record high|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613172226/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200606/s1661277.htm|archivedate=13 June 2006|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia arms exports could exceed $7 bln in 2007&nbsp;– Ivanov|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=27 January 2008|url=http://sputniknews.com/russia/20071224/93979601.html}}</ref> The [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], SIPRI, found that Russia was the second biggest exporter of arms in 2010-14, increasing their exports by 37 per cent from the period 2005-2009. In 2010-14, Russia delivered weapons to 56 states and to rebel forces in eastern Ukraine.<ref name="sipri1"/>

The Russian government's published 2014 military budget is about 2.49 trillion [[rubles]] (approximately US$69.3 billion), the [[List of countries by military expenditures|third largest]] in the world behind the US and China. The official budget is set to rise to 3.03 trillion rubles (approximately US$83.7 billion) in 2015, and 3.36 trillion rubles (approximately US$93.9 billion) in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kazak|first=Sergey|title=Russia to Up Nuclear Weapons Spending 50% by 2016|url=http://sputniknews.com/military/20131008/184004336.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=1 March 2014}}</ref> However, unofficial estimates put the budget significantly higher, for example the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI) 2013 Military Expenditure Database estimated Russia's military expenditure in 2012 at US$90.749 billion.<ref>{{cite web|title=SIPRI Military Expenditure Database|url=http://milexdata.sipri.org/files/?file=SIPRI+milex+data+1988-2012+v2.xlsx|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|accessdate=1 March 2014}}</ref> This estimate is an increase of more than US$18 billion on SIPRI's estimate of the Russian military budget for 2011 (US$71.9 billion).<ref>{{cite web|last=Toohey|first=Nathan|title=Russia's defense spending grows to third largest in the world|url=http://themoscownews.com/russia/20120417/189640006.html|publisher=Moscow Times|accessdate=1 March 2014}}</ref> As of 2014, Russia's military budget is higher than any other European nation.

According to 2012 [[Global Peace Index]], Russia is the sixth least peaceful out of 162 countries in the world, principally because of its defense industry. Russia has historically ranked low on the index since its inception in 2007.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/report-russia-less-peaceful-than-north-korea/460299.html |title=Report: Russia Less Peaceful Than North Korea |work=The Moscow Times |first=Jonathan |last=Earle |date=14 June 2012 |accessdate=23 June 2012}}</ref>

===Political divisions===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}}
[[File:Russian Regions-EN.svg|center|600px|Map of the federal subjects of the Russian Federation]]
[[File:Vladimir Putin 8 November 2000-1.jpg|thumb|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] and [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], former rebel and [[head of the Chechen Republic]], 2000]]
[[File:RIAN archive 172139 Dmitry Medvedev visits Kazan.jpg|thumb|Russian President [[Dmitry Medvedev]] and President of Tatarstan [[Mintimer Shaimiyev]] in [[Kazan]], the capital of [[Tatarstan]], 2011]]
;Federal subjects
According to the [[Constitution of Russia|Constitution]], the country comprises eighty-five [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=[[:ru:Официальный интернет-портал правовой информации|pravo.gov.ru]]|url = http://pravo.gov.ru:8080/page.aspx?94685|pages = 19, 21|language = Russian|date = 11 April 2014}}</ref> including the [[Republic of Crimea]] and the [[federal cities of Russia|federal city]] of [[Sevastopol]], whose recent establishment is internationally disputed and criticized as illegal [[annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/20605|title=Treaty Between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Crimea on Ascension to the Russian Federation of the Republic of Crimea and on Establishment of New Subjects Within the Russian Federation|publisher=Kremlin.ru|date=18 March 2014|accessdate=10 April 2014|language=ru}}</ref> In 1993, when the Constitution was adopted, there were eighty-nine federal subjects listed, but later some of them were merged. These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the [[Federation Council (Russia)|Federation Council]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 95, §2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
* 46 [[oblasts of Russia|oblasts]] (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with locally elected governor and legislature.<ref name="FZ_gub_elect" />
* 22 [[republics of Russia|republics]]: nominally autonomous; each is tasked with drafting its own constitution, direct-elected<ref name="FZ_gub_elect">Direct elections of heads of republics (and other federal subjects) are mandated by Article 18 of the [http://constitution.garant.ru/act/federative/12117177/chapter/3/#300 Federal Law of 06.10.1999 No. 184-FZ] as amended by [http://base.garant.ru/70169404/#131 Federal Law of 2.05.2012 No. 40-FZ]</ref> head of republic<ref>Designation of republican heads as presidents is forbidden by [http://graph.document.kremlin.ru/page.aspx?1;1538006 Federal Law of 28.12.2010 No. 406-FZ], but transitional period lasts until 1 January 2015</ref> or a similar post, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
* 9 [[krais of Russia|krais]] (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to the administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
* 4 [[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]] (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]], all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part.
* 1 [[autonomous oblast]] (the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]]): historically, autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except for the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
* 3 [[federal cities]] (Moscow, [[Saint Petersburg]], and [[Sevastopol]]): major cities that function as separate regions.

{{Further|Political status of Crimea and Sevastopol|2014 Crimean crisis}}

;Federal districts
Federal subjects are grouped into nine [[federal districts of Russia|federal districts]], each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.<ref>''Russian Classification of Economic Regions'' (OK&nbsp;024–95) of 1 January 1997 as amended by the Amendments #1/1998 through #5/2001. (Section&nbsp;I. Federal Districts)</ref> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Russia}}
{{See also|List of Russian explorers}}
[[File:Russland Relief.png|thumb|The topography of Russia]]
Russia is the [[largest country in the world]]; its total area is {{convert|17075400|km2|sqmi}}. There are 23 UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites in Russia]], 40 UNESCO [[biosphere reserve]]s,<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Network of Biosphere Reserves—UNESCO|title=Russian Federation|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> 41 [[National parks of Russia|national parks]] and 101 [[Zapovednik|nature reserves]]. It lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[82nd parallel north|82° N]], and longitudes [[19th meridian east|19° E]] and [[169th meridian west|169° W]].

Russia's territorial expansion was achieved largely in the late 16th century under the Cossack [[Yermak Timofeyevich]] during the reign of [[Ivan the Terrible]], at a time when competing city-states in the western regions of Russia had banded together to form one country. Yermak mustered an army and pushed eastward where he conquered nearly all the lands once belonging to the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]], defeating their ruler, [[Kuchum|Khan Kuchum]].<ref>Alton S Donnelly, ''The Russian Conquest of Bashkiria'', 1968, pages 23 and 127; Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians''. New York: Random House, 1994, p. 30</ref>

Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of timber, petroleum, natural gas, coal, ores and other mineral resources.

===Topography===
The two most widely separated points in Russia are about {{convert|8000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a [[geodesic]] line. These points are: a {{convert|60|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long [[Vistula Spit]] the boundary with Poland separating the [[Gdańsk Bay]] from the [[Vistula Lagoon]] and the most southeastern point of the [[Kuril Islands]]. The points which are farthest separated in [[longitude]] are {{convert|6600|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a geodesic line. These points are: in the west, the same spit on the boundary with Poland, and in the east, the [[Big Diomede Island]]. The Russian Federation spans nine [[time zone]]s.

[[File:Эльбрус с перевала Гумбаши.JPG|thumb|right|[[Mount Elbrus]], the highest point of the [[Caucasus]], Russia and Europe]]
Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly [[steppe]] to the south and heavily forested to the north, with [[tundra]] along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of the world's [[arable land]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil prices drive the cost of food|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://sputniknews.com/analysis/20080222/99853566.html|accessdate=22 February 2008}}</ref> Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]] (containing [[Mount Elbrus]], which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) and the [[Altai Mountains|Altai]] (containing [[Mount Belukha]], which at the {{convert|4506|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point of Siberia outside of the [[Russian Far East]]); and in the eastern parts, such as the [[Verkhoyansk Range]] or the volcanoes of [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] (containing [[Klyuchevskaya Sopka]], which at the {{convert|4750|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest [[active volcano]] in Eurasia as well as the highest point of [[Asian Russia]]). The [[Ural Mountains]], rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia.

Russia has an extensive coastline of over {{convert|37000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Sea of Azov]], [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]].<ref name=cia>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=CIA|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.html|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> The [[Barents Sea]], [[White Sea]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[Bering Sea]], [[Sea of Okhotsk]], and the [[Sea of Japan]] are linked to Russia via the Arctic and Pacific. Russia's major islands and archipelagos include [[Novaya Zemlya]], the [[Franz Josef Land]], the [[Severnaya Zemlya]], the [[New Siberian Islands]], [[Wrangel Island]], the [[Kuril Islands]], and [[Sakhalin]]. The [[Diomede Islands]] (one controlled by Russia, the other by the U.S.) are just {{convert|3|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart, and [[Kunashir Island]] is about {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from [[Hokkaido]], Japan.

[[File:Новодевичье 20050020.jpg|thumb|right|[[Volga River]] in [[Samara Oblast]]]]
Russia has thousands of [[Rivers in Russia|rivers]] and inland bodies of water, providing it with one of the world's largest surface water resources. Its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid [[fresh water]].<ref name=loc>{{cite web|last=Library of Congress|title=Topography and drainage|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/23.htm|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> The largest and most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is [[Lake Baikal]], the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake.<ref name=baikal>{{cite web|title=Lake Baikal—A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies|publisher=United States Geological Survey|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> Baikal alone contains over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref name=loc/> Other major lakes include [[Lake Ladoga|Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega|Onega]], two of the [[largest lakes in Europe]]. Russia is second only to Brazil in volume of the [[total renewable water resources]]. Of the country's 100,000 rivers,<ref>{{cite web|title=Angara River|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/24432/Angara-River|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref> the [[Volga]] is the most famous, not only because it is the [[longest river in Europe]], but also because of its major role in Russian history.<ref name=cia/> The Siberian rivers [[Ob River|Ob]], [[Yenisey]], [[Lena River|Lena]] and [[Amur River|Amur]] are among the [[longest rivers in the world]].

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Russia}}
[[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|left|[[Taiga]] forest, [[Yugyd Va National Park]] in the [[Komi Republic]]]]
The enormous size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the [[humid continental climate]], which is prevalent in all parts of the country except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Mountains in the south obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, while the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.<ref name=congress>{{cite web|title=Climate|publisher=Library of Congress|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/24.htm|accessdate=26 December 2007}}</ref>

Most of Northern European Russia and Siberia has a [[subarctic climate]], with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly the [[Sakha Republic]], where the Northern [[Pole of Cold]] is located with the record low temperature of {{convert|−71.2|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}), and more moderate winters elsewhere. Both the strip of land along the shore of the Arctic Ocean and the [[Russian Arctic islands]] have a [[polar climate]].

The coastal part of [[Krasnodar Krai]] on the Black Sea, most notably in [[Sochi]], possesses a [[humid subtropical climate]] with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some areas of southernmost Siberia, possesses a [[semi-arid climate]].
{{Weather box
|location = Russia (records)
|collapsed =
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 22.2
|Feb record high C = 23.8
|Mar record high C = 30.3
|Apr record high C = 34.0
|May record high C = 37.7
|Jun record high C = 43.2
|Jul record high C = 45.4
|Aug record high C = 43.5
|Sep record high C = 41.5
|Oct record high C = 33.7
|Nov record high C = 29.1
|Dec record high C = 25.0
|year record high C = 45.4
|Jan record low C = −71.2
|Feb record low C = −64.4
|Mar record low C = −60.6
|Apr record low C = −46.4
|May record low C = −28.9
|Jun record low C = −9.7
|Jul record low C = −9.3
|Aug record low C = −17.1
|Sep record low C = −25.3
|Oct record low C = −47.6
|Nov record low C = −58.5
|Dec record low C = −62.8
|year record low C = −71.2
|source 1 = Pogoda.ru.net<ref name="climate monitor">{{cite web |url=http://www.pogodaiklimat.ru/monitor.php |title=Pogoda.ru.net |accessdate=8 September 2010 |language=Russian}}</ref>
|date=August 2010
}}

Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons—winter and summer—as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures.<ref name=congress/> The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drozdov |first1=V. A. |title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea |journal=GeoJournal |year=1992 |doi=10.1007/BF00717701 |volume=27 |page=169 |issue=2 |last2=Glezer |first2=O. B. |last3=Nefedova |first3=T. G. |last4=Shabdurasulov |first4=I. V.}}</ref> The continental interiors are the driest areas.

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|List of ecoregions in Russia|List of mammals of Russia|List of birds of Russia}}
[[File:Medved mzoo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[brown bear]] is a [[Russian Bear|popular symbol of Russia]], particularly in the West.]]

From north to south the [[East European Plain]], also known as Russian Plain, is clad sequentially in Arctic [[tundra]], coniferous forest ([[taiga]]), [[mixed and broad-leaf forests]], grassland ([[steppe]]), and semi-desert (fringing the Caspian Sea), as the changes in vegetation reflect the changes in climate. Siberia supports a similar sequence but is largely taiga. Russia has the world's largest [[forest reserves]],<ref name="fao.org"/> known as "the lungs of Europe",<ref>{{Cite news|author=Walsh, N. P.|title =It's Europe's lungs and home to many rare species. But to Russia it's £100bn of wood|publisher=Guardian (UK)|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/sep/19/environment.russia|accessdate=26 December 2007|location=London|date=19 September 2003}}</ref> second only to the [[Amazon Rainforest]] in the amount of [[carbon dioxide]] it absorbs.

There are 266 mammal species and 780 bird species in Russia. A total of 415 animal species have been included in the [[Red Data Book of the Russian Federation]] as of 1997 and are now protected.<ref>{{cite web|author=I. A. Merzliakova|url=http://enrin.grida.no/biodiv/biodiv/national/russia/state/00440.htm |title=List of animals of the Red Data Book of Russian Federation|publisher=UNEP/GRID–Arendal|date=1 November 1997|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Russia|Timeline of largest projects in the Russian economy}}
[[File:WTC-Moscow.jpg|thumb|right|World Trade Center in Moscow]]
Russia has a [[World Bank high-income economy|developed, high-income]] [[market economy]] with enormous natural resources, particularly [[Russian oil industry|oil]] and natural gas. It has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|15th largest]] economy in the world by nominal GDP and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|6th largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). Since the turn of the 21st century, higher domestic consumption and greater political stability have bolstered economic growth in Russia. The country ended 2008 with its ninth straight year of growth, but growth has slowed with the decline in the price of oil and gas. Real GDP per capita, PPP (current international) was 19,840 in 2010.<ref name=wdi>{{cite web |url=http://databank.worldbank.org/|title=World Development Indicators |author=World Bank |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=6 August 2011}}</ref> Growth was primarily driven by non-traded services and goods for the domestic market, as opposed to oil or mineral extraction and exports.<ref name=cia/> The average nominal salary in Russia was $967 per month in early 2013, up from $80 in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russians weigh an enigma with Putin's protégé|publisher=MSNBC|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/24443419/|accessdate=9 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/markadomanis/2012/09/10/what-is-the-russian-middle-class-probably-not-what-you-think/|title=What is the Russian Middle Class? Probably Not What You Think|author=Mark Adomanis|work=Forbes|date=9 October 2012|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref> In March 2014 the average nominal monthly wages reached 30,000 RUR (or US$980),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rg.ru/2013/06/24/zarplata-site-anons.html |title=Average salary in Russia reached 30,000 rubles|publisher=[[Rossiyskaya Gazeta]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B13_00/IssWWW.exe/Stg/dk05/1-0.htm|title=Average salary in Russia from Russia's Federal Statistics Service (May 2013) |publisher=Gks.ru |date= |accessdate=14 August 2013}}</ref> while tax on the income of individuals is payable at the rate of 13% on most incomes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voxeu.org/article/effects-russia-s-flat-tax |title=Lessons from the Russia's 2001 Flat Tax Reform |publisher=Voxeu.org |date= |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Approximately 12.8% of Russians lived [[Poverty by country|below the national poverty line]] in 2011,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=The Moscow Times|title=Russia Is Getting Wealthier|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/opinion/article/russia-is-getting-wealthier/420731.html|date=21 October 2010}}</ref> significantly down from 40% in 1998 at the worst point of the post-Soviet collapse.<ref name=worldbank/> Unemployment in Russia was 5.4% in 2014, down from about 12.4% in 1999.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=RIA Novosti|title=Russia's unemployment rate down 10% in 2007&nbsp;– report|url=http://sputniknews.com/russia/20080208/98724898.html|accessdate=9 May 2008}}</ref> The middle class has grown from just 8&nbsp;million persons in 2000 to 104&nbsp;million persons in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|work=BusinessWeek |url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461.htm? |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104235128/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461.htm? |archivedate=4 January 2007|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2013/a-rising-middle-class-will-fuel-growth-in-russia.html|title=A Rising Middle Class Will Fuel Growth in Russia|publisher=nielsen.com|date=27 March 2013|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref> Sugar imports reportedly dropped 82% between 2012 and 2013 as a result of the increase in domestic output.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sysoyeva |first=Marina |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-08-27/russia-raw-sugar-imports-dropped-82-this-year-through-aug-22 |title=Russia Raw-Sugar Imports Dropped 82% This Year Through Aug. 22 |publisher=Bloomberg.com |date=27 August 2012 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref>

[[File:Russian economy since fall of Soviet Union.PNG|thumb|right|Russian economy since the end of the Soviet Union]]
Oil, natural gas, metals, and timber account for more than 80% of Russian exports abroad.<ref name=cia/> Since 2003, the exports of natural resources started decreasing in economic importance as the internal market strengthened considerably. Despite higher energy prices, oil and gas only contribute to 5.7% of Russia's GDP and the government predicts this will be 3.7% by 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia fixed asset investment to reach $370 bln by 2010–Kudrin|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://sputniknews.com/business/20070921/80301609.html|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Oil export earnings allowed Russia to increase its foreign reserves from $12&nbsp;billion in 1999 to $597.3&nbsp;billion on 1 August 2008, the third [[largest foreign exchange reserves]] in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbr.ru/Eng/statistics/credit_statistics/print.asp?file=inter_res_08_e.htm|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation in 2008|publisher=The Central Bank of the Russian Federation|accessdate=30 July 2008}}</ref> The macroeconomic policy under Finance Minister [[Alexei Kudrin]] was prudent and sound, with excess income being stored in the [[Stabilization Fund of Russia]].<ref name="euromoney">{{cite news|url=http://www.euromoney.com/Article/2683869/Kudrin-and-Fischer-honoured-by-Euromoney-at-IMFWorld.html|title=Kudrin and Fischer honoured by Euromoney and IMF/World Bank meetings in Washington|publisher=Euromoney|accessdate=4 March 2011}}</ref> In 2006, Russia repaid most of its formerly massive debts,<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia's foreign debt down 31.3% in Q3—finance ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|url=http://sputniknews.com/russia/20061031/55272320.html|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> leaving it with [[Foreign debt by country|one of the lowest foreign debts among major economies]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2079rank.html Debt – external], [[CIA World Factbook]]. Retrieved 22 May 2010.</ref> The Stabilization Fund helped Russia to come out of the [[Late-2000s recession|global financial crisis]] in a much better state than many experts had expected.<ref name="euromoney"/>

A simpler, more streamlined tax code adopted in 2001 reduced the tax burden on people and dramatically increased state revenue.<ref>{{Cite news|author=Tavernise, S|title=Russia Imposes Flat Tax on Income, and Its Coffers Swell|work=New York Times|date=23 March 2002|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E01E0DC163BF930A15750C0A9649C8B63|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Russia has a [[flat tax]] rate of 13%. This ranks it as the country with the second most attractive personal tax system for single managers in the world after the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey–market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.htm?idContent=1287670|accessdate=27 December 2007}}{{Dead link|date=July 2014}}</ref> According to [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]], Russia is considered well ahead of most other resource-rich countries in its economic development, with a long tradition of education, science, and industry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia: How Long Can The Fun Last?|work=BusinessWeek |url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461_page_2.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061213231938/http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/dec2006/gb20061207_520461_page_2.htm |archivedate=13 December 2006|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> The country has a higher proportion of higher education graduates than any other country in Eurasia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/22/countries-with-the-most-c_n_655393.html#s117395&title=Switzerland_313 |title=Countries with the MOST College Graduates (PHOTOS) |work=Huffington Post |date= 22 July 2010|accessdate=7 December 2011 |first=Leah |last=Finnegan}}</ref>

[[File:Russia and China sign major gas deal.jpeg|thumb|On 21 May 2014, Russia and [[China]] signed a $400 billion gas deal. Starting 2019 Russia plans to provide [[natural gas]] to China for the next 30 years.]]
The economic development of the country has been uneven geographically with the Moscow region contributing a [[List of Russian federal subjects by GRP|very large share]] of the country's GDP.<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b01_19/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d000/vrp98-07.htm GRP by federal subjects of Russia, 1998–2007] {{ru icon}}</ref>
Inequality of household income and wealth has also been noted, with Credit Suisse finding Russian wealth distribution so much more extreme than other countries studied it "deserves to be placed in a separate category."<ref name=pbs>{{cite web|title=Inequality and the Putin Economy: Inside the Numbers|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/foreign-affairs-defense/putins-way/inequality-and-the-putin-economy-inside-the-numbers/ |website=pbs.org |publisher=Frontline |accessdate=14 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=CSRIGWR>{{cite web|title=Global Wealth Report 2014|url=https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=60931FDE-A2D2-F568-B041B58C5EA591A4|publisher=Credit Suisse. Research Institute|accessdate=14 January 2015}}</ref>
Another problem is modernisation of infrastructure, ageing and inadequate after years of being neglected in the 1990s; the government has said $1&nbsp;trillion will be invested in development of infrastructure by 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sputniknews.com/russia/20070920/80058850.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=31 July 2008|title=Russia to invest $1&nbsp;trillion in infrastructure by 2020&nbsp;– ministry}}</ref> In December 2011, Russia finally{{clarify|reason=Why "finally"?|date=December 2014}} joined the World Trade Organisation, allowing it a greater access to overseas markets. Some analysts estimate that WTO membership could bring the Russian economy a bounce of up to 3% annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2011/12/16/russia-finally-joins-wto/#axzz1u6TcNKZX |title=Russia finally joins WTO |publisher=Financial Times |date=16 December 2011 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Russia ranks as the second-most corrupt country in Europe (after Ukraine), according to the [[Corruption Perceptions Index]]. The Norwegian-Russian Chamber of Commerce also states that "[c]orruption is one of the biggest problems both Russian and international companies have to deal with".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrcc.no/rusbedin/database_doingbusiness.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070918143400/http://www.nrcc.no/rusbedin/database_doingbusiness.html|archivedate=18 September 2007 |title=Doing business in Russia |publisher=Norwegian-Russian Chamber of Commerce |date=10 June 2012 |accessdate=10 June 2012}}</ref> The high rate of corruption acts as a hidden tax as businesses and individuals often have to pay money that is not part of the official tax rate. It is estimated that corruption is costing the Russian economy an estimated $2 billion (80 billion rubles) per year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cria-online.org/9_5.html|publisher=CRIA|title=Russia Ready to Float Ruble Next Year Regardless of Rate|date=2009}}</ref> In 2014, a book-length study by Professor Karen Dawisha was published concerning corruption in Russian under Putin's government.<ref>''Putin's Kleptocracy: Who Owns Russia?'', published 30 September 2014, by Karen Dawisha.</ref>

The Russian central bank announced plans in 2013 to free float the Russian ruble in 2015. According to a stress test conducted by the central bank Russian financial system would be able to handle a currency decline of 25%–30% without major central bank interference. However, Russian economy began stagnating in late 2013 and in combination with the [[War in Donbass]] is in danger of entering stagflation, slow growth and high inflation. The Russian ruble collapsed by 24% from October 2013 to October 2014 entering the level where the central bank may need to intervene to strengthen the currency. Moreover, after bringing inflation down to 3.6% in 2012, the lowest rate since gaining independence from the Soviet Union, inflation in Russia jumped to nearly 7.5% in 2014, causing the central bank to increase its lending rate to 8% from 5.5% in 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304419104579326441407494108|publisher=Wall Street Journal|title=Russia Ready to Float Ruble Next Year Regardless of Rate|date=17 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.wsj.com/articles/russian-central-bank-raises-key-interest-rate-to-8-from-7-5-1406284743|publisher=Wall Street Journal|title=Russian Central Bank Raises Key Interest Rate to 8% From 7.5%
|date=25 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/quote/USDRUB:CUR|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|title=USD/RUB exchange rate}}</ref> In an October 2014 article in ''Bloomberg Business Week'', it was reported that Russia had significantly started shifting its economy towards China in response to increasing financial tensions following its annexation of Crimea and subsequent Western economic sanctions.<ref>"China Embraces Russia", Bloomberg Business Week, 9 October 2014, pp 15–16.</ref>

===Agriculture===
{{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}}
[[File:Rozh.jpg|thumb|''Rye Fields'', by [[Ivan Shishkin]]. Russia is the world's top producer of [[rye]], [[barley]], [[buckwheat]], [[oats]] and [[sunflower seed]], and one of the largest producers and exporters of wheat.]]
The [[total area of cultivated land]] in Russia was estimated as {{convert|1237294|km2}} in 2005, the fourth largest in the world.<ref>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2097.html Land Use]", [[CIA World Factbook]]</ref> From 1999 to 2009, Russia's agriculture demonstrated steady growth,<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b09_02/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d010/1-03.doc Data] by [[Rosstat]] {{ru icon}}</ref> and the country turned from a grain importer to the third largest grain exporter after the EU and the United States.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120108052630/http://www.rosbankjournal.ru/news/11588 Russia takes the third place in the world by grain exports], rosbankjournal.ru {{ru icon}}</ref> The production of meat has grown from 6,813,000 tonnes in 1999 to 9,331,000 tonnes in 2008, and continues to grow.<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b09_02/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d010/1-04.doc Data] by [[Rosstat]] {{ru icon}}</ref>

This restoration of agriculture was supported by a credit policy of the government, helping both individual farmers and large privatized corporate farms that once were Soviet [[kolkhoz]]es and which still own the significant share of agricultural land.<ref>"[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b09_38/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/04-01.htm Agricultural land by type of owners]", [[Rosstat]], 2009 {{ru icon}}</ref> While large farms concentrate mainly on the production of grain and [[husbandry]] products, small private [[household plot]]s produce most of the country's yield of potatoes, vegetables and fruits.<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b09_38/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/02-28.htm Main agricultural products by type of owners] [[Rosstat]], 2009 {{ru icon}}</ref>

With access to three of the world's oceans—the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contributor to the [[world's fish supply]]. The total capture of fish was 3,191,068 tons in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|last=Brown |first=Felicity |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/datablog/2009/sep/02/fish-capture-country |title=Fish capture by country since 1950 |publisher=Guardian |date=2 September 2009 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Both exports and imports of fish and sea products grew significantly in recent years, reaching $2,415 and $2,036 million, respectively, in 2008.<ref>"[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b09_13/IssWWW.exe/Stg/html4/15-07.htm Exports and imports of fish and sea products]", [[Rosstat]], 2009 {{ru icon}}</ref>

Sprawling from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, Russia has more than a fifth of the world's forests, which makes it the largest forest country in the world.<ref name="fao.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf|title=FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. Main Report. FAO Forestry Working Paper 163, Rome, Italy|format=PDF|date= |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref><ref name="FAO 2010">{{cite web|format=PDF|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1757r/i1757r.pdf|script-title=ru:Глобальная оценка лесных ресурсов 2010 года|trans-title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010|publisher=FAO Forestry Working Paper 163, Rome, Italy|language=ru|date=2010}}</ref> However, according to a 2012 study by the [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] and the Government of the Russian Federation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/157942/icode/ |title=Innovations and investments urged to modernize Russian forest sector www.fao.org |publisher=FAO|date=25 September 2012 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> the considerable potential of Russian forests is underutilized and Russia's share of the global trade in forest products is less than four percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3020e/i3020e00.pdf|title=The Russian Federation Forest Sector Outlook Study to 2030|publisher=FAO. Rome, Italy|format=PDF|date=2012|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref>

===Energy===
{{Main|Energy in Russia|Nuclear power in Russia}}
[[File:RF NG pipestoEU.gif|thumb|left|Russia is a key [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] supplier to much of Europe.]]
In recent years, Russia has frequently been described in the media as an [[energy superpower]].<ref>[http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704129204575505373365685564 Russia, China in Deal On Refinery, Not Gas] by Jacob Gronholt-Pedersen. Wall Street Journal, 22 September 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.businessinsider.com/why-russia-is-about-to-change-the-world-2010-1 Did A New Pipeline Just Make Russia The Most Important Energy Superpower By Far] by Graham Winfrey. Business Insider, 6 January 2010</ref> The country has the world's largest [[natural gas reserves]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html Country Comparison :: Natural gas – proved reserves]. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> the 8th largest [[oil reserves]],<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2244rank.html Country Comparison :: Oil – proved reserves]. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> and the second largest [[coal reserves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206104056/http://bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls|archivedate=6 February 2009|title=BP Statistical review of world energy June 2007|publisher=BP|format=XLS|date=June 2007|accessdate=22 October 2007}}</ref> Russia is the world's leading [[natural gas exporter]]<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2251rank.html Country Comparison :: Natural gas – exports]. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> and second largest [[natural gas producer]],<ref name=cia-gas>"[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2249rank.html Country Comparison :: Natural gas – production]", CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> while also the largest [[oil exporter]] and the largest [[oil producer]].<ref name=IEA-Oil>{{cite web|format=PDF|url=http://omrpublic.iea.org/omrarchive/18jan12sup.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518015934/http://omrpublic.iea.org/omrarchive/18jan12sup.pdf|archivedate=18 May 2012|title=International Energy Agency – Oil Market Report|date=18 January 2012|accessdate=20 February 2012}}</ref>

Russia is the 3rd largest [[electricity producer]] in the world<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2232rank.html Country Comparison :: Electricity – production]. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 3 February 2014.</ref> and the 5th largest [[renewable energy producer]], the latter because of the well-developed [[hydroelectricity]] production in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206104056/http://bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2007/STAGING/local_assets/downloads/spreadsheets/statistical_review_full_report_workbook_2007.xls|archivedate=6 February 2009|title=BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2009: Hydroelectricity consumption|accessdate=29 October 2010}}</ref> Large cascades of [[hydropower plant]]s are built in European Russia along big rivers like Volga. The Asian part of Russia also features a number of major hydropower stations, however the gigantic hydroelectric potential of Siberia and the Russian Far East largely remains unexploited.

Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power and to construct the world's [[first nuclear power plant]]. Currently the country is the 4th largest [[nuclear energy producer]],<ref>[http://wayback.archive.org/web/20110107102229/http://www.iaea.org/programmes/a2/index.html Nuclear Power Plant Information], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]. Retrieved 12 June 2006.</ref> with all [[nuclear power in Russia]] being managed by [[Rosatom]] State Corporation. The sector is rapidly developing, with an aim of increasing the total share of nuclear energy from current 16.9% to 23% by 2020. The Russian government plans to allocate 127&nbsp;billion rubles ($5.42&nbsp;billion) to a federal program dedicated to the next generation of nuclear energy technology. About 1&nbsp;trillion rubles ($42.7&nbsp;billion) is to be allocated from the federal budget to nuclear power and industry development before 2015.<ref>[http://www.amur.kp.ru/daily/24458/620649/ Russia builds nuclear power stations all over the world] at amur.kp.ru {{ru icon}}</ref>

In May 2014 on a two-day trip to Shanghai, President Putin signed a deal on behalf of Gazprom for the Russian energy giant to [[Yakutia–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok pipeline|supply China]] with 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Construction of a pipeline to facilitate the deal was agreed whereby Russia would contribute $55bn to the cost, and China $22bn, in what Putin described as "the world's biggest construction project for the next four years." The natural gas would begin to flow sometime between 2018 and 2020 and would continue for 30 years at an ultimate cost to China of $400bn.<ref name="CNPCdeal">{{cite news|title=China and Russia sign $400 billion 30-year gas deal|url=http://www.russiaherald.com/index.php/sid/222206767|accessdate=22 May 2014|publisher=''Russia Herald''}}</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Russia|History of rail transport in Russia|Rail transport in Russia}}
[[File:TransSiberianRailwayAtKm9288.jpg|thumb|upright|The marker for kilometre 9288 at the end of the [[Trans-Siberian Railway]] in [[Vladivostok]]]]
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run [[Russian Railways]] monopoly. The company accounts for over 3.6% of Russia's GDP and handles 39% of the total freight traffic (including pipelines) and more than 42% of passenger traffic.<ref name=rzd>{{cite web|url=http://eng.rzd.ru/isvp/public/rzdeng?STRUCTURE_ID=4|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091004034659/http://eng.rzd.ru/isvp/public/rzdeng?STRUCTURE_ID=4|archivedate=4 October 2009|title=Russian Railways|publisher=Eng.rzd.ru|accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref> The total length of common-used railway tracks exceeds {{convert|85500|km|0|abbr=on}},<ref name=rzd/> second only to the United States. Over {{convert|44000|km|0|abbr=on}} of tracks are [[Railway electrification system|electrified]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://invest.gov.ru/en/government_support/sectors/infrastructure/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426092402/http://invest.gov.ru/en/government_support/sectors/infrastructure/|archivedate=26 April 2011|title=Invest in Russia–Infrastructure|publisher=Invest.gov.ru|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> which is the largest number in the world, and additionally there are more than {{convert|30000|km|0|abbr=on}} of industrial non-common carrier lines. Railways in Russia, unlike in the most of the world, use [[broad gauge]] of {{RailGauge|1520mm}}, with the exception of {{convert|957|km|0|abbr=on}} on [[Sakhalin]] island using narrow gauge of {{RailGauge|1067mm}}. The most renowned railway in Russia is [[Trans-Siberian Railway|Trans-Siberian]] (''Transsib''), spanning a record 7 time zones and serving the longest single continuous services in the world, Moscow-[[Vladivostok]] ({{convert|9259|km|0|abbr=on}}), Moscow–[[Pyongyang]] ({{convert|10267|km|0|abbr=on}})<ref>[http://www.poezda.net/en/web CIS railway timetable], route No. 002, Moscow-Pyongyang, August 2009. Note: several different routes have the same number.</ref> and [[Kiev]]–Vladivostok ({{convert|11085|km|0|abbr=on}}).<ref>[http://www.poezda.net/en/web CIS railway timetable], route No. 350, Kiev-Vladivostok, August 2009.</ref>

As of 2006 Russia had [[Roads by country|933,000&nbsp;km of roads]], of which 755,000 were paved.<ref>[http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b08_11/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d02/18-09.htm Rosstat statistics on length of roads] Retrieved 10 June 2009</ref> Some of these make up the [[Russian federal motorway system]]. With a large land area the road density is the lowest of all the [[G8]] and [[BRIC]] countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraptranstats.net/rus|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417001324/http://www.iraptranstats.net/rus|archivedate=17 April 2009|title=Transport in Russia|accessdate=17 February 2009|work=International Transport Statistics Database|publisher=iRAP}}</ref>

Much of Russia's inland waterways, which [[List of countries by waterways length|total {{convert|102000|km|0|abbr=on}}]], are made up of natural rivers or lakes. In the European part of the country the network of channels connects the basins of major rivers. Russia's capital, Moscow, is sometimes called "the port of the five seas", because of its waterway connections to the Baltic, [[White Sea|White]], Caspian, [[Azov Sea|Azov]] and [[Black Sea]]s.

[[File:NSF picture of Yamal.gif|thumb|left|''[[Yamal (icebreaker)|Yamal]]'', one of Russia's [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]]s <ref>{{cite web|url=http://englishrussia.com/2008/03/31/russian-atomic-icebreakers/|title=Russian Atomic Icebreakers|publisher=English Russia|date=31 March 2008|accessdate=27 April 2015}}</ref>]]
Major sea ports of Russia include [[Rostov-on-Don]] on the Azov Sea, [[Novorossiysk]] on the Black Sea, [[Astrakhan]] and [[Makhachkala]] on the Caspian, [[Kaliningrad]] and St Petersburg on the Baltic, [[Arkhangelsk]] on the White Sea, [[Murmansk]] on the Barents Sea, [[Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky]] and [[Vladivostok]] on the Pacific Ocean. In 2008 the country owned 1,448 [[Merchant marine by country|merchant marine]] ships. The world's only fleet of [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]]s advances the economic exploitation of the Arctic [[continental shelf of Russia]] and the development of sea trade through the [[Northern Sea Route]] between Europe and East Asia.

By [[total length of pipelines]] Russia is second only to the United States. Currently many new pipeline projects are being realized, including [[Nord Stream]] and [[South Stream]] natural gas pipelines to Europe, and the [[Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline]] (ESPO) to the Russian Far East and China.

Russia has 1,216 airports,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2053rank.html |title=CIA The World Factbook–Rank Order–Airports |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=19 January 2011}}</ref> the busiest being [[Sheremetyevo]], [[Domodedovo International Airport|Domodedovo]], and [[Vnukovo]] in Moscow, and [[Pulkovo Airport|Pulkovo]] in St. Petersburg. The total length of runways in Russia exceeds {{Convert|600000|km|mi}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global-economics.ru/transportnaya-sistema-rossiyiskoyi-federatscii.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110426092303/http://global-economics.ru/transportnaya-sistema-rossiyiskoyi-federatscii.html|archivedate=26 April 2011|title=Transport system of Russia|publisher=Global-economics.ru|accessdate=3 October 2010}}</ref>

Typically, major Russian cities have well-developed systems of public transport, with the most common varieties of exploited vehicles being bus, [[trolleybus]] and tram. Seven Russian cities, namely [[Moscow Metro|Moscow]], [[Saint Petersburg Metro|Saint Petersburg]], [[Nizhny Novgorod Metro|Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Novosibirsk Metro|Novosibirsk]], [[Samara Metro|Samara]], [[Yekaterinburg Metro|Yekaterinburg]], and [[Kazan Metro|Kazan]], have underground metros, while [[Volgograd]] features a [[Volgograd Metrotram|metrotram]]. The [[total length of metros]] in Russia is {{Convert|465.4|km|mi}}. Moscow Metro and Saint Petersburg Metro are the oldest in Russia, opened in 1935 and 1955 respectively. These two are among the fastest and [[busiest metro systems]] in the world, and are famous for rich decorations and unique designs of their stations, which is a common tradition on Russian metros and railways.

===Science and technology===
{{Main|Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|Science and technology in Russia|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}}
[[File:Lomonosovportrait.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Mikhail Lomonosov]], [[polymath]] scientist, inventor, poet and artist]]
[[File:Ivan Pavlov NLM2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Ivan Pavlov]] (1849–1936), physiologist, Nobel Prize in 1904]]
<!--tag for image of Mikhail Lomonosov is located at end of previous section, raising image to relieve clutter below-->
Science and technology in Russia blossomed since the [[Age of Enlightenment]], when [[Peter the Great]] founded the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]], and [[polymath]] [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] established the [[Moscow State University]], paving the way for a strong native tradition in learning and innovation. In the 19th and 20th centuries the country produced a large number of notable scientists and inventors.

The [[Russian physics school]] began with Lomonosov who proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the [[energy conservation law]]. Russian discoveries and inventions in physics include the [[electric arc]], electrodynamical [[Lenz's law]], [[space groups]] of [[crystal]]s, [[photoelectric cell]], [[superfluidity]], [[Cherenkov radiation]], [[electron paramagnetic resonance]], [[heterotransistor]]s and [[3D holography]]. [[Laser]]s and [[maser]]s were co-invented by [[Nikolai Basov]] and [[Alexander Prokhorov]], while the idea of [[tokamak]] for controlled [[nuclear fusion]] was introduced by [[Igor Tamm]], [[Andrei Sakharov]] and [[Lev Artsimovich]], leading eventually the modern international [[ITER]] project, where Russia is a party.

Since the time of [[Nikolay Lobachevsky]] (the "[[Copernicus]] of [[Geometry]]" who pioneered the [[non-Euclidean geometry]]) and a prominent tutor [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]], the [[Russian mathematical school]] became one of the most influential in the world.<ref>{{cite book|title=Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=978-981-02-4390-6|url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Russian_Mathematicians_in_the_20th_Centu.html?id=BFsnWXkqZaMC|editor=Yakov Sinai}}</ref> Chebyshev's students included [[Aleksandr Lyapunov]], who founded the modern [[stability theory]], and [[Andrey Markov]] who invented the [[Markov chain]]s. In the 20th century Soviet mathematicians, such as [[Andrey Kolmogorov]], [[Israel Gelfand]], and [[Sergey Sobolev]], made major contributions to various areas of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with [[Fields Medal]], a most prestigious award in mathematics. Recently [[Grigori Perelman]] was offered the first ever Clay [[Millennium Prize Problems]] Award for his final proof of the [[Poincaré conjecture]] in 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428112451/http://www.claymath.org/poincare/index.html|archivedate=28 April 2013 |title=The Poincaré Conjecture |publisher=Claymath.org |date= |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref>

[[Russian chemist]] [[Dmitry Mendeleev]] invented the [[Periodic table]], the main framework of modern [[chemistry]]. [[Aleksandr Butlerov]] was one of the creators of the theory of [[chemical structure]], playing a central role in [[organic chemistry]]. [[Russian biologists]] include [[Dmitry Ivanovsky]] who discovered viruses, [[Ivan Pavlov]] who was the first to experiment with the [[classical conditioning]], and [[Ilya Mechnikov]] who was a pioneer researcher of the [[immune system]] and [[probiotics]].

Many Russian scientists and inventors were [[émigrés]], like [[Igor Sikorsky]], who built the first [[airliner]]s and modern-type helicopters; [[Vladimir Zworykin]], often called the father of TV; chemist [[Ilya Prigogine]], noted for his work on [[dissipative structures]] and [[complex systems]]; Nobel Prize-winning economists [[Simon Kuznets]] and [[Wassily Leontief]]; physicist [[Georgiy Gamov]] (an author of the [[Big Bang]] theory) and social scientist [[Pitirim Sorokin]]. Many foreigners worked in Russia for a long time, like [[Leonard Euler]] and [[Alfred Nobel]].

[[Russian inventions]] include [[arc welding]] by [[Nikolay Benardos]], further developed by [[Nikolay Slavyanov]], [[Konstantin Khrenov]] and other Russian engineers. [[Gleb Kotelnikov]] invented the [[knapsack parachute]], while [[Evgeniy Chertovsky]] introduced the [[pressure suit]]. [[Alexander Lodygin]] and [[Pavel Yablochkov]] were pioneers of [[electric lighting]], and [[Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky]] introduced the first [[three-phase electric power]] systems, widely used today. [[Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev|Sergei Lebedev]] invented the first commercially viable and mass-produced type of [[synthetic rubber]]. The first [[ternary computer]], ''[[Setun]]'', was developed by [[Nikolay Brusentsov]].

[[File:Sukhoi T-50 Beltyukov.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Sukhoi PAK FA]] is a [[fifth-generation jet fighter]] being developed for the [[Russian Air Force]].]]
In the 20th century a number of prominent [[Soviet aerospace engineers]], inspired by the fundamental works of [[Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky|Nikolai Zhukovsky]], [[Sergei Chaplygin]] and others, designed many hundreds of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number of ''KBs'' (''Construction Bureaus'') that now constitute the bulk of Russian [[United Aircraft Corporation]]. Famous Russian aircraft include the civilian [[Tupolev|Tu]]-series, [[Sukhoi|Su]] and [[MiG|MiG fighter aircraft]], [[Kamov|Ka]] and [[Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant|Mi]]-series helicopters; many Russian aircraft models are on the [[list of most produced aircraft]] in history.

Famous Russian battle tanks include [[T-34|T34]], the most heavily produced tank design of World War&nbsp;II,<ref>[http://www.achtungpanzer.com/panzerkampfwagen-t-34r-soviet-t-34-in-german-service.htm Panzerkampfwagen T-34(r)] by George Parada (n.d.) ''Achtung Panzer!'' website. Retrieved 17 November 2008</ref> and further tanks of T-series, including the most produced tank in history, [[T-54/55|T54/55]].<ref>Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997 94–96 ISBN 1-86126-270-1: "The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history".</ref> The [[AK47]] and [[AK-74|AK74]] by [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] constitute the most widely used type of [[assault rifle]] throughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csae.ox.ac.uk/workingpapers/pdfs/2006-13text.pdf|title=Weaponomics: The Economics of Small Arms|format=PDF|date= |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref>

With all these achievements, however, since the late Soviet era Russia was lagging behind the West in a number of technologies, mostly those related to [[energy conservation]] and [[consumer goods]] production. The crisis of the 1990s led to the drastic reduction of the state support for science and a [[brain drain]] migration from Russia.

In the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government [[Medvedev modernisation programme|launched a campaign]] aimed into modernisation and [[innovation]]. Russian President Dmitry Medvedev formulated top priorities for the country's technological development:
* [[Efficient energy use]]
* Information technology, including both common products and the products combined with [[space technology]]
* [[Nuclear power|Nuclear energy]]
* [[Pharmaceuticals]]<ref>[http://sputniknews.com/russia/20091011/156428675.html Medvedev outlines priorities for Russian economy's modernization] RIA Novosti</ref>

Currently Russia has completed the [[GLONASS]] [[satellite navigation system]]. The country is developing its own [[Sukhoi PAK FA|fifth-generation jet fighter]] and constructing the first serial [[mobile nuclear plant]] in the world.

===Space exploration===
[[File:Mir on 12 June 1998edit1.jpg|thumb|Soviet and Russian [[space station]] [[Mir]]]]
Russian achievements in the field of [[space technology]] and [[space exploration]] are traced back to [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], the father of theoretical [[astronautics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aiaa.org/index.cfm|title=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|publisher=Aiaa.org|accessdate=2 January 2010}}{{Dead link|date=January 2014}}</ref> His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as [[Sergey Korolyov]], [[Valentin Glushko]], and many others who contributed to the success of the [[Soviet space program]] on early stages of the [[Space Race]] and beyond.

In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik&nbsp;1]]'', was launched; in 1961 the first human trip into space was successfully made by [[Yury Gagarin]]. Many other Soviet and Russian [[space exploration records]] ensued, including the first [[spacewalk]] performed by [[Alexey Leonov]], [[Luna&nbsp;9]] was the first spacecraft to land on the [[Moon]], [[Venera&nbsp;7]] was the first to land on another planet ([[Venus]]), [[Mars&nbsp;3]] then the first to land on [[Mars]], the first [[space exploration rover]] ''[[Lunokhod-1|Lunokhod 1]]'' and the first [[space station]] ''[[Salyut&nbsp;1]]'' and ''[[Mir]]''.

After the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], some government-funded space exploration programs, including the [[Buran programme|Buran]] space shuttle program, were cancelled or delayed, while participation of the Russian space industry in commercial activities and international cooperation intensified.
Nowadays Russia is the largest satellite launcher.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2009.html|title=Russian space program in 2009: plans and reality|publisher=Russianspaceweb.com|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> After the U.S. [[Space Shuttle]] program ended in 2011, [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz rockets]] became the only provider of transport for astronauts at the [[International Space Station]]. [[File:Soyuz TMA-2 launch.jpg|thumb|upright|Soyuz TMA-2 launch.jpg|[[Soyuz TMA-2]] is launched from [[Baikonur]], [[Kazakhstan]], carrying one of the first resident crews to the [[International Space Station]]]]

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Russia|Rossiyane}}
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=vertical
|width=300
|image1=Percentage of Russians by region.svg
|caption1=Percentage of ethnic Russians by region in 2010{{legend|#ff0000|>80%}}{{legend|#ff9955|70—79%}}{{legend|#ffccaa|50—69%}}{{legend|#ffe6d5|20—49%}}
{{legend|#ffffff|<20%}}
|image2=Russia natural population growth rates 2012.PNG
|caption2=Natural population growth rate in Russia, 2012.
}}
Ethnic Russians comprise 81% of the country's population.<ref name="perepis-2010.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/result-december-2011.ppt|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118212344/http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/result-december-2011.ppt|archivedate=18 January 2012|title=ВПН-2010|work=perepis-2010.ru}}</ref> The Russian Federation is also home to several sizeable minorities. In all, 160 different other ethnic groups and indigenous peoples live within its borders.<ref name=ethnicgroups>[http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_nac_02.php Ethnic groups in Russia], 2002 census, ''Demoscope Weekly''. Retrieved 5 February 2009.</ref> Though Russia's population is comparatively large, [[list of countries by population density|its density is low]] because of the country's enormous size. Population is densest in [[European Russia]], near the [[Ural Mountains]], and in southwest Siberia. 73% of the population lives in urban areas while 27% in rural ones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Resident population|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-01.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303135317/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/05-01.htm|archivedate=3 March 2012|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> The results of the [[Russian Census (2010)|2010 Census]] show a total population of 142,856,536.<ref name="2010Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref>

Russia's population peaked at 148,689,000 in 1991, just before the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]]. It began to experience a rapid decline starting in the mid-1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/29.htm|publisher=Library of Congress|title=Demographics|accessdate=16 January 2008}}</ref> The decline has slowed to near stagnation in recent years because of reduced [[death rates]], increased [[birth rates]] and increased [[immigration]].<ref name=gks/>

In 2009, Russia recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, with total growth of 10,500.<ref name=gks>[http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2010/demo/dem-sit-09.doc Modern demographics of Russia] by [[Rosstat]]. Retrieved on 5 October 2010</ref> 279,906 migrants arrived to the Russian Federation the same year, of which 93% came from [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] countries.<ref name=gks/> The number of Russian emigrants steadily declined from 359,000 in 2000 to 32,000 in 2009.<ref name=gks/> There are also an estimated 10&nbsp;million [[Illegal immigration in Russia|illegal immigrants]] from the ex-Soviet states in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia cracking down on illegal migrants|work=International Herald Tribune|date=15 January 2007|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/15/news/migrate.php|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915210918/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/15/news/migrate.php|archivedate=15 September 2008}}</ref> Russia is home to approximately 116&nbsp;million ethnic Russians<ref name="ethnicgroups"/> and about 20&nbsp;million ethnic Russians live outside Russia in the former republics of the Soviet Union,<ref>{{Wayback |df=yes|date=20100525073623 |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article728982.ece |title=Putin tries to lure millions of Russian expats home}} Times Online. 9 February 2006.</ref> mostly in Ukraine and Kazakhstan.<ref>Moya Flynn. [https://books.google.com/books?id=YLeAxHLmgR8C&pg=PA15 Migrant resettlement in the Russian federation: reconstructing 'homes' and 'homelands'], Anthem Press (2004). p. 15. ISBN 1-84331-117-8</ref>

The [[Russian Census (2010)|2010 census]] recorded 81% of the population as [[Russians|ethnically Russian]], and 19% as other ethnicities:<ref name="perepis-2010.ru"/> 3.7% [[Tatars]]; 1.4% [[Ukrainians in Russia|Ukrainians]]; 1.1% [[Bashkirs]]; 1% [[Chuvash people|Chuvashes]]; 11.8% others and unspecified. According to the Census, 84.93% of the Russian population belongs to European ethnic groups (Slavic, Germanic, Finnic other than [[Ugric peoples|Ugric]], Greek, and others). This is a decline from the 2002, when they constituted for more than 86% of the population.<ref name="perepis-2010.ru"/>

Russia's birth rate is higher than that of most European countries (12.6 births per 1000 people in 2010<ref name=gks/> compared to the [[European Union]] average of 9.90 per 1000),<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order—Birth rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2054rank.html|accessdate=25 April 2009}}</ref> but its death rate is also substantially higher (in 2010, Russia's death rate was 14.3 per 1000 people<ref name=gks/> compared to the EU average of 10.28 per 1000).<ref>{{cite web|last=The World Factbook|title=Rank Order—Death rate|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2066rank.html|accessdate=25 April 2009}}</ref> The Russian Ministry of Health and Social Affairs predicted that by 2011 the death rate would equal the birth rate because of increase in fertility and decline in mortality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sputniknews.com/russia/20080123/97616414.html|title=Russia's birth, mortality rates to equal by 2011–ministry|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=10 February 2008}}</ref> The government is implementing a number of programs designed to increase the birth rate and attract more migrants. Monthly government child-assistance payments were doubled to US$55, and a one-time payment of US$9,200 was offered to women who had a second child since 2007.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Russia|publisher=[[Library of Congress]]—Federal Research Division|date=October 2006|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Russia.pdf|accessdate=27 December 2007|format=PDF}}</ref>

In 2006, in a bid to compensate for the country's demographic decline, the Russian government started simplifying immigration laws and launched a state program "for providing assistance to voluntary immigration of ethnic Russians from former Soviet republics".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sputniknews.com/analysis/20060714/51327247.html|title=Russia trying to resolve demographic problem through immigration|date=14 July 2006|work=rian.ru}}</ref> In 2009 Russia experienced its highest birth rate since the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref name=gks/><ref>[http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ias/ias05.php?tim=0&cou=26&terr=1&ind=26&Submit=OK Russian birth rates 1950–2008] ''Demoscope Weekly''. Retrieved October 2010.</ref> In 2012, the birth rate increased again. Russia recorded 1,896,263 births, the highest number since 1990, and even exceeding annual births during the period 1967–1969, with a TFR of about 1.7, the highest since 1991. (Source: Vital statistics table below)

In August 2012, as the country saw its first demographic growth since the 1990s, President Putin declared that Russia's population could reach 146 million by 2025, mainly as a result of immigration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sputniknews.com/society/20120820/175324629.html|title=Immigration Drives Russian Population Increase|date=20 August 2012|work=ria.ru}}</ref>

===Largest cities===
{{Main|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}}
{{Largest cities of Russia}}

===Language===
[[File:RussianLanguageMap2.png|thumb|Area where [[Russian language]] is spoken]]
{{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia|List of endangered languages in Russia}}

Russia's 160 ethnic groups speak some 100 languages.<ref name=britannica/> According to the 2002 Census, 142.6&nbsp;million people speak Russian, followed by [[Tatar language|Tatar]] with 5.3&nbsp;million and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] with 1.8&nbsp;million speakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perepis2002.ru/index.html?id=87|title=Russian Census of 2002|work=4.3. Population by nationalities and knowledge of Russian; 4.4. Spreading of knowledge of languages (except Russian)|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=16 January 2008}}</ref> Russian is the only official state language, but the Constitution gives the individual [[Republics of Russia|republics]] the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=(Article 68, §2)|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref>

Despite its wide distribution, the Russian language is homogeneous throughout the country. Russian is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the most widely spoken [[Slavic language]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian|publisher=University of Toronto|url=http://learn.utoronto.ca/Page625.aspx|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106002617/http://learn.utoronto.ca/Page625.aspx|archivedate=6 January 2007|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> It belongs to the [[Indo-European language]] family and is one of the living members of the [[East Slavic languages]], the others being [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (and possibly [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]). Written examples of [[Old East Slavic]] (''Old Russian'') are attested from the 10th century onwards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.foreigntranslations.com/languages/russian-translation/russian-language-history/?page-content.cfm/page/russian-language|title=Russian Language History|publisher=Foreigntranslations.com|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref>

Russian is the second-most used language on the [[Internet]] after English,<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian is now the second most used language on the web|url=http://w3techs.com/blog/entry/russian_is_now_the_second_most_used_language_on_the_web|work=W3Techs|publisher=Q-Success|accessdate=17 June 2013|author=Matthias Gelbmann|date=19 March 2013}}</ref> one of two official languages aboard the [[International Space Station]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html|title=JAXA - My Long Mission in Space|publisher=}}</ref> and is one of the six [[official languages of the UN]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Poser|first=Bill|url=http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/000854.html|title=The languages of the UN|publisher=Itre.cis.upenn.edu|date=5 May 2004|accessdate=29 October 2010}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Russia}}
[[File:Kizhi church 1.jpg|thumb|Church of the Transfiguration, [[Kizhi Pogost]] in the [[Republic of Karelia]]]]
There is no official census of religion in Russia, and estimates are based on surveys only. In August 2012, ARENA<ref name="ArenaAtlas">[http://sreda.org/arena Arena – Atlas of Religions and Nationalities in Russia]. Sreda.org</ref> estimated that about 46.8% of Russians are Christians (including Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant, and non-denominational), which is slightly less than an absolute 50%+ majority. However, later that year, the [[Levada Center]] estimated that 76% of Russians are Christians,<ref name="levada.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.levada.ru/17-12-2012/v-rossii-74-pravoslavnykh-i-7-musulman|script-title=ru:Пресс выпуски - В России 74% православных и 7% мусульман€|trans-title=Press releases - In Russia 74% are Orthodox and 7% are Muslims|language=ru|work=levada.ru|date=17 December 2012|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref> and in June 2013, the Public Opinion Foundation<ref name="fom.ru">{{cite web|url=http://fom.ru/obshchestvo/10953|script-title=ru:Ценности: религиозность|trans-title=Values: Religious|language=ru|work=fom.ru|date=14 June 2013|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref> estimated that 65% of Russians are Christians. These findings are in line with [[Pew Research Center]]'s 2011 survey,<ref name="pewforum.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/|title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|work=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|date=19 December 2011|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref> which estimated that 73.6% of Russians are Christians, with [[Russian Public Opinion Research Center]] (VCIOM)'s 2010 survey (~77% Christian),<ref name="wciom.ru">{{cite web|url=http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=268&uid=13365|script-title=ru:ВЦИОМ: Социальное самочувствие россиян и экономические реалии: непересекающиеся пространства?|trans-title=MEETING OF THE SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL VCIOM: The social well-being of Russians and economic realities: a disjointed space?|language=ru|work=Russian Public Opinion Research Center|date=28 October 2014|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref> and with [[Ipsos MORI]]'s 2011 survey (69%).<ref name="fgi-tbff.org">{{cite web|format=PDF|url=http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf|title=Views on globalisation and faith|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117013643/http://www.fgi-tbff.org/sites/default/files/elfinder/FGIImages/Research/fromresearchtopolicy/ipsos_mori_briefing_pack.pdf|archivedate=17 January 2013|date=5 July 2011|page=40}}</ref> [[Orthodox Christianity in Russia|Orthodox Christianity]], [[Islam in Russia|Islam]], [[Judaism in Russia|Judaism]] and [[Buddhism in Russia|Buddhism]] are Russia's traditional religions, and are all legally a part of Russia's "historical heritage".<ref>{{cite book|author=Rev. Canon Michael Bourdeaux|editor=Imogen Bell|title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2003|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA47|accessdate=29 April 2015|edition=3|year=2002|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-85743-137-7|page=47|chapter=Trends in Religious Policy}}</ref>

Traced back to the [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']] in the 10th century, Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant religion in the country; smaller Christian denominations such as Catholics, [[Armenian Gregorians]] and various Protestant churches also exist. The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was the country's state religion prior to the Revolution and remains the largest religious body in the country. An estimated 95% of the registered Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while there are a number of [[Religion in Russia|smaller Orthodox Churches]].<ref name="religare.ru">{{cite web |script-title=ru:Сведения о религиозных организациях, зарегистрированных в Российской Федерации по данным Федеральной регистрационной службы|trans-title=Data about religious organizations registered in Russian Federation according to Federal Migration Service records|url=http://www.religare.ru/2_36302.html|language=Russian|date=19 December 2006|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> However, the vast majority of Orthodox believers do not attend church on a regular basis. Easter is the most popular religious holiday in Russia, celebrated by a large segment of the Russian population, including large numbers of those who are non-religious. More than three-quarters of the Russian population celebrate Easter by making traditional Easter cakes, coloured eggs and [[paskha (dish)|paskha]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=8400|title=Over 90 percent of Russians are going to celebrate Easter anyway - poll|publisher=Interfax Religion|date=22 April 2011|accessdate=2 November 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Kazan church edit.jpg|thumb|[[Temple of All Religions]], [[Kazan]], Tatarstan]]
[[Islam]] is the second largest religion in Russia after [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodoxy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe: Belarus, Russian Federation and Ukraine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wm3w1oGCaEoC&pg=PA1387|accessdate=29 April 2015|series=World and Its Peoples|year=2010|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7900-0|page=1387|chapter=Russian Federation}}</ref> It is the traditional or predominant religion amongst some [[peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian ethnicities]] (notably the [[Chechens]], the [[Ingush people|Ingush]] and the [[Circassians]]), and amongst some [[Turkic peoples]] (notably the [[Tatars]] and the [[Bashkirs]]). Altogether, there are 9,400,000 Muslims in Russia or 6.5% of the total population as of 2012 (the share of Muslims is probably much higher because the survey doesn't include detailed data for the traditionally Islamic states of [[Chechnya]] and [[Ingushetia]]). Notwithstanding, various differences split the Muslim population in different groups. According to the survey, most of the Muslims (precisely 6,700,000 or 4.6% of the total population) are "unaffiliated" to any [[Islamic schools and branches]] or Islamic organisation, this is mainly because it is not essential for Muslims to be affiliated with any specific sect or organization. Those who are affiliated are mostly [[Sunni]] Muslims, with [[Shia]] and [[Ahmadiyya]] minorities.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ingvar Svanberg|author2=David Westerlund|title=Islam Outside the Arab World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jTVjWTllOGgC&pg=PA418|accessdate=29 April 2015|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-11330-7|page=418}}</ref> Unaffiliated Muslims constitute significant numbers of over 10% in [[Kabardino-Balkaria]] (49%), [[Bashkortostan]] (38%), [[Karachay-Cherkessia]] (34%), [[Tatarstan]] (31%), [[Yamalia]] (13%), [[Orenburg Oblast]] (11%), [[Adygea]] (11%) and [[Astrakhan Oblast]] (11%). Most of the regions of [[Siberia]] have an unaffiliated Muslim population of 1% to 2%.<ref name="ArenaAtlas"/><ref name="2012maps">[http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg 2012 Survey Maps]. "Ogonek", No. 34 (5243), 27 August 2012. ''Retrieved 24 September 2012''.</ref>

Buddhism is traditional in three regions of the Russian Federation: [[Republic of Buryatia|Buryatia]], [[Tuva]], and [[Kalmykia]]. Some residents of the Siberian and Far Eastern regions, such as [[Yakutia]] and [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug|Chukotka]], practice [[shamanist]], [[pantheistic]], and [[pagan]] rites, along with the major religions. Induction into religion takes place primarily along ethnic lines. [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] are significantly Orthodox Christian, [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] speakers are predominantly Muslim, and [[Mongols|Mongolic peoples]] are generally Buddhists.<ref>{{cite web|author=Richard Hellie|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia/38602/Religion|title=Russia|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=29 April 2015}}</ref>

Various reports put the number of [[Irreligion|non-religious]] in Russia at between 16–48% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zuckerman |first=P. |chapter=Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns |title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism |editor=Michael Martin |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005}}</ref> The number of atheists has decreased significantly; according to the recent statistic, only seven percent declared themselves atheists, a decrease of 5% in three years.<ref name="2013 Belivers">{{cite web|url=http://www.sova-center.ru/religion/discussions/how-many/2013/01/d26201/|script-title=ru:Социологи вновь посчитали верующих россиян|trans-title=Sociologists have counted Russian believers anew|publisher=Sova Center|language=Russian|date=15 January 2013|accessdate=29 April 2013}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Healthcare in Russia}}
[[File:Terapevt Mudrov train.JPG|thumb|A mobile clinic used to provide health care at remote railway stations]]

The Russian Constitution guarantees free, [[universal health care]] for all its citizens.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation|work=Article 41|url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-03.htm|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> In practice, however, free health care is partially restricted because of [[Registration in Russia|mandatory registration]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsru.com/russia/06jun2007/lukin.html|script-title=ru:Российский омбудсмен будет бороться с дискриминацией по "прописке" через суд|trans-title=Russian ombudsman will be fighting discrimination based on passport "registration" in the courts|language=ru|date=6 June 2007|accessdate=23 July 2008}}</ref> While Russia has more physicians, hospitals, and health care workers than almost any other country in the world on a per capita basis,<ref>{{cite web|title=Healthcare in Russia&nbsp;– Don't Play Russian Roulette|publisher=justlanded.com|url=http://www.justlande/refd.com/english/Russia/Articles/Health/Healthcare-in-Russia|accessdate=3 October 2010}}</ref> since the dissolution of the Soviet Union the health of the Russian population has declined considerably as a result of social, economic, and lifestyle changes;<ref>{{cite news|author=W. R. Leonard|title=Declining growth status of indigenous Siberian children in post-Soviet Russia|date=April 2002|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3659/is_200204/ai_n9037764|accessdate=27 December 2007|work=Human Biology|deadurl=yes}}{{Dead link|date=January 2012|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> the trend has been reversed only in the recent years, with average life expectancy having increased 5.2 years for males and 3.1 years for females between 2006–14.<ref name=demo26data/>

As of 2014, the average life expectancy in Russia was 65.29 years for males and 76.49 years for females.<ref name="demo26data">{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/demo26.xls|format=XLS|script-title=ru:ОЖИДАЕМАЯ ПРОДОЛЖИТЕЛЬНОСТЬ ЖИЗНИ ПРИ РОЖДЕНИИ|trans-title=Life expectancy at birth|work=[[Rosstat]]|date=2 April 2015|accessdate=26 April 2015}}</ref> The biggest factor contributing to the relatively low life expectancy for males is a high mortality rate among working-age males. Deaths mostly occur because of preventable causes (e.g., alcohol poisoning, smoking, traffic accidents, violent crime).<ref name=gks/> As a result of the large gender difference in life expectancy, and also because of the lasting effect of high casualties in World War&nbsp;II, the [[gender imbalance]] remains to this day; there are 0.859 males to every female.<ref name=cia/>

===Education===
{{Main|Education in Russia}}
[[File:Moscow State University.jpg|thumb|[[Moscow State University]]]]
Russia has the most college-level or higher graduates in percentage of population in the world.<ref>[[Huffington Post]]: [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/22/countries-with-the-most-c_n_655393.html#s117394&title=United_Kingdom_318 Countries With The MOST College Graduates] retrieved 27 September 2013</ref> Russia has a [[free education]] system, which is guaranteed for all citizens by the [[Russian constitution|Constitution]],<ref>David Johnson, ed., ''Politics, Modernisation and Educational Reform in Russia: From Past to Present'' (2010)</ref> however entry to subsidized higher education is highly competitive.<ref>{{cite web|author=Smolentseva, A|title=Bridging the Gap Between Higher and Secondary Education in Russia|url=http://www.bc.edu/research/cihe.html|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> As a result of great emphasis on science and technology in education, Russian medical, mathematical, scientific, and aerospace research is generally of a high order.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of State|title= Background Note: Russia|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm|accessdate=2 January 2008}}</ref>

Since 1990, the 11-year school education has been introduced. Education in state-owned secondary schools is free. University level education is free, with exceptions. A substantial share of students is enrolled for full pay (many state institutions started to open commercial positions in the last years).<ref>{{cite web|title=Higher Education Institutions|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/08-10.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303145808/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2007/b07_12/08-10.htm|archivedate=3 March 2012|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=1 January 2008}}</ref>

In 2004, state spending for education amounted to 3.6% of the GDP, or 13% of the consolidated state budget.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001547/154743e.pdf|title=Education for All by 2015: will we make it?|publisher=EFA global monitoring report|date=2008|format=PDF|accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> The Government allocates funding to pay the tuition fees within an established quota or number of students for each state institution. In higher education institutions, students are paid a small [[stipend]] and provided with free housing if they are from out of town.<ref>{{cite web|title=Higher education structure|publisher=State University Higher School of Economics|url=http://www.hse.ru/en/rus-ed.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213104458/http://www.hse.ru/en/rus-ed.html|archivedate=13 December 2010|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref>

The oldest and largest [[Russian universities]] are [[Moscow State University]] and [[Saint Petersburg State University]]. In the 2000s, in order to create higher education and research institutions of comparable scale in Russian regions, the government launched a program of establishing "federal universities", mostly by merging existing large regional universities and research institutes and providing them with a special funding. These new institutions include the [[Southern Federal University]], [[Siberian Federal University]], [[Kazan Volga Federal University]], [[North-Eastern Federal University]], and [[Far Eastern Federal University]].
{{clear}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Russian culture}}

===Folk culture and cuisine===
{{Main|Russian traditions|Russian jokes|Russian fairy tales|Russian cuisine}}
[[File:Kustodiev Merchants Wife.jpg|thumb|right|''The Merchant's Wife'' by [[Boris Kustodiev]], showcasing the [[Russian tea culture]]]]

There are over 160 different ethnic groups and indigenous peoples in Russia.<ref name=ethnicgroups/> Ethnic [[Russians]] with their [[Slavs|Slavic]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] traditions, [[Tatars]] and [[Bashkirs]] with their Turkic Muslim culture, [[Buddhist]] [[nomadic]] [[Buryats]] and [[Kalmyks]], [[Shamanistic]] peoples of the [[Extreme North]] and Siberia, highlanders of the [[Northern Caucasus]], [[Finno-Ugric peoples]] of the [[Russian North West]] and [[Volga Region]] all contribute to the cultural diversity of the country.

[[Handicraft]], like [[Dymkovo toy]], [[khokhloma]], [[gzhel]] and [[palekh miniature]] represent an important aspect of Russian [[folk culture]]. Ethnic Russian clothes include [[kaftan]], [[kosovorotka]] and [[ushanka]] for men, [[sarafan]] and [[kokoshnik]] for women, with [[lapti]] and [[valenki]] as common shoes. The clothes of [[Cossack]]s from Southern Russia include [[Burka (Caucasus)|burka]] and [[papaha]], which they share with the peoples of the Northern Caucasus.

[[Russian cuisine]] widely uses fish, poultry, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of [[rye]], wheat, [[barley]], and [[millet]] provide the ingredients for various breads, [[pancakes]] and cereals, as well as for [[kvass]], beer and vodka drinks. [[Black bread]] is rather popular in Russia, compared to the rest of the world. Flavourful soups and stews include [[shchi]], [[borsch]], [[ukha]], [[solyanka]] and [[okroshka]]. [[Smetana (dairy product)|Smetana]] (a heavy [[sour cream]]) is often added to soups and salads. [[Pirozhki]], [[blini]] and [[syrniki]] are native types of pancakes. [[Chicken Kiev]], [[pelmeni]] and [[shashlyk]] are popular meat dishes, the last two being of Tatar and Caucasus origin respectively. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls ''([[golubtsy]])'' usually filled with meat.<ref name="mrig-golubtsy">{{cite web|url=http://www.moscow-russia-insiders-guide.com/how-to-cook-golubtzy.html |title=How to Cook Golubtzy|publisher=Moscow-russia-insiders-guide.com |date=6 August 2011 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> Salads include [[Olivier salad]], [[vinegret]] and [[dressed herring]].

Russia's large number of ethnic groups have distinctive traditions regarding [[Music of Russia#Ethnic roots music|folk music]]. Typical ethnic Russian musical instruments are [[gusli]], [[balalaika]], [[zhaleika]], and [[garmoshka]]. Folk music had a significant influence on Russian classical composers, and in modern times it is a source of inspiration for a number of popular [[folk band]]s, like [[Melnitsa]]. [[Russian folk songs]], as well as patriotic [[Soviet songs]], constitute the bulk of the repertoire of the world-renowned [[Red Army choir]] and other popular ensembles.

Russians have [[Russian traditions|many traditions]], including the washing in [[banya (sauna)|banya]], a hot steam bath somewhat similar to [[sauna]].<ref name="banya"/> Old [[Russian folklore]] takes its roots in the pagan [[Slavic mythology|Slavic religion]]. Many [[Russian fairy tales]] and epic [[bylina]]s were adaptated for animation films, or for feature movies by the prominent directors like [[Aleksandr Ptushko]] (''[[Ilya Muromets (film)|Ilya Muromets]]'', ''[[Sadko (film)|Sadko]]'') and [[Aleksandr Rou]] (''[[Morozko]]'', ''[[Vasilisa the Beautiful]]''). Russian poets, including [[Pyotr Pavlovich Yershov|Pyotr Yershov]] and [[Leonid Filatov]], made a number of well-known poetical interpretations of the classical fairy tales, and in some cases, like that of [[Alexander Pushkin]], also created fully original fairy tale poems of great popularity.

===Architecture===
{{Main|Russian architecture|List of Russian architects}}
[[File:Sant Vasily cathedral in Moscow.JPG|thumb|left|upright|[[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in Moscow, a well known piece of [[Russian architecture]]]]

Since the [[Christianization of Kievan Rus']] for several ages Russian architecture was influenced predominantly by the [[Byzantine architecture]]. Apart from fortifications ([[kremlin]]s), the main stone buildings of ancient Rus' were [[Orthodox church (building)|Orthodox churches]] with their many [[dome]]s, often gilded or brightly painted.

[[Aristotle Fioravanti]] and other Italian architects brought [[Renaissance]] trends into Russia since the late 15th century, while the 16th century saw the development of unique [[tent-like church]]es culminating in [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130116214934/http://www.rusarch.ru/zagraevsky19.htm The first stone tented roof church and the origins of the tented roof architecture] by [[Sergey Zagraevsky]] at RusArch.ru {{ru icon}}</ref> By that time the [[onion dome]] design was also fully developed.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130116215900/http://www.rusarch.ru/zagraevsky1.htm The shapes of domes of ancient Russian churches] by [[Sergey Zagraevsky]] at the site of RusArch.ru {{ru icon}}</ref> In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and [[Yaroslavl]], gradually paving the way for the [[Naryshkin baroque]] of the 1690s. After the [[reforms of Peter the Great]] the change of architectural styles in Russia generally followed that in the Western Europe.

The 18th-century taste for [[rococo]] architecture led to the ornate works of [[Bartolomeo Rastrelli]] and his followers. The reigns of [[Catherine the Great]] and her grandson [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander&nbsp;I]] saw the flourishing of [[Neoclassical architecture]], most notably in the capital city of [[Saint Petersburg]]. The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the [[Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire|Neo-Byzantine]] and [[Russian Revival]] styles. Prevalent styles of the 20th century were the [[Art Nouveau]], [[Constructivist architecture|Constructivism]], and the [[Stalin Empire style]].

In 1955, a new Soviet leader, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], condemned the "excesses" of the former academic architecture,<ref>Russian: Постановление ЦК КПСС и СМ СССР "Об устранении излишеств в проектировании и строительстве", 4 November 1955 (Khrushchev's decree ''On liquidation of excesses&nbsp;...'') {{ru icon}}</ref> and the late Soviet era was dominated by plain [[functionalism in architecture]]. This helped somewhat to resolve the housing problem, but created a large quantity of buildings of low architectural quality, much in contrast with the previous bright styles. The situation improved in the recent two decades. Many temples demolished in Soviet times were rebuilt, and this process continues along with the restoration of various historical buildings destroyed in World War&nbsp;II. A total of 23,000 Orthodox churches have been rebuilt between 1991 and 2010, which effectively quadrapled the number of operating churches in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sputniknews.com/art_living/20101203/161616486.html|title=Over 20,000 churches rebuilt in Russia in 20 years - Patriarch Kirill|date=3 December 2010|work=rian.ru}}</ref>

===Visual arts===
{{Main|Russian artists}}
[[File:Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A piece of Russian Icon art known as [[Rublev]]'s [[Trinity (Andrei Rublev)|''Trinity'']]]]
[[File:Brjullov.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Karl Bryullov]] (1799–1852), a key figure in transition from the Russian neoclassicism to romanticism.]]

Early Russian painting is represented in [[Russian icons|icons]] and vibrant [[fresco]]s, the two genres inherited from [[Byzantium]]. As Moscow rose to power, [[Theophanes the Greek]], [[Dionisius]] and [[Andrei Rublev]] became vital names associated with a distinctly Russian art.

The [[Russian Academy of Arts]] was created in 1757<ref>[http://en.rah.ru/content/en/section-academy-en.html Russian Academy of Arts] official site.</ref> and gave Russian artists an international role and status. [[Ivan Argunov]], [[Dmitry Levitzky]], [[Vladimir Borovikovsky]] and other 18th century academicians mostly focused on [[portrait painting]]. In the early 19th century, when [[neoclassicism]] and [[romantism]] flourished, mythological and Biblical themes inspired many prominent paintings, notably by [[Karl Briullov]] and [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov|Alexander Ivanov]].

In the mid-19th century the ''[[Peredvizhniki]]'' (''Wanderers'') group of artists broke with the Academy and initiated a school of art liberated from academic restrictions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gray|first=Camilla|title=Russian Experiment in Art|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|year=2002|page=9}}</ref> These were mostly [[Realism (visual arts)|realist]] painters who captured Russian identity in landscapes of wide rivers, forests, and birch clearings, as well as vigorous genre scenes and robust portraits of their contemporaries. Some artists focused on depicting dramatic moments in Russian history, while others turned to [[social criticism]], showing the conditions of the poor and caricaturing authority; [[Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)|critical realism]] flourished under the reign of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]. Leading realists include [[Ivan Shishkin]], [[Arkhip Kuindzhi]], [[Ivan Kramskoi]], [[Vasily Polenov]], [[Isaac Levitan]], [[Vasily Surikov]], [[Viktor Vasnetsov]], [[Ilya Repin]], and [[Boris Kustodiev]].

The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of [[symbolism (art)|symbolist]] painting, represented by [[Mikhail Vrubel]], [[Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin]], and [[Nicholas Roerich]].

The [[Russian avant-garde]] was a large, influential wave of [[modernist art]] that flourished in Russia from approximately 1890 to 1930. The term covers many separate, but inextricably related art movements that occurred at the time, namely [[neo-primitivism]], [[suprematism]], [[constructivism (art)|constructivism]], [[rayonism]], and [[Russian Futurism]]. Notable artists from this era include [[El Lissitzky]], [[Kazimir Malevich]], [[Wassily Kandinsky]], and [[Marc Chagall]]. Since the 1930s the revolutionary ideas of the [[avant-garde]] clashed with the newly emerged conservative direction of [[socialist realism]].

Soviet art produced works that were furiously patriotic and [[anti-fascist]] during and after the [[Great Patriotic War]]. Multiple war memorials, marked by a great restrained solemnity, were built throughout the country. Soviet artists often combined innovation with socialist realism, notably the sculptors [[Vera Mukhina]], [[Yevgeny Vuchetich]] and [[Ernst Neizvestny]].

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of Russia|Russian ballet|Russian opera|Russian rock|Russian pop|Russian composers}}
[[File:Snowdance.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The ''Snowdance'' scene from ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' ballet, composed by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]]]

Music in 19th century Russia was defined by the tension between classical composer [[Mikhail Glinka]] along with other members of [[The Mighty Handful]], who embraced Russian national identity and added religious and folk elements to their compositions, and the [[Russian Musical Society]] led by composers [[Anton Rubinstein|Anton]] and [[Nikolay Rubinstein]]s, which was musically conservative. The later tradition of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], one of the greatest composers of the [[Romantic music|Romantic era]], was continued into the 20th century by [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=Norris, Gregory; ed. Stanley, Sadie|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition|publisher=MacMillian|year=1980|location=London|page=707|isbn=0-333-23111-2}}</ref> World-renowned composers of the 20th century include [[Alexander Scriabin]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Sergei Prokofiev]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] and [[Alfred Schnittke]].

Russian conservatories have turned out generations of famous soloists. Among the best known are violinists [[Jascha Heifetz]], [[David Oistrakh]], [[Leonid Kogan]], [[Gidon Kremer]], and [[Maxim Vengerov]]; cellists [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], [[Natalia Gutman]]; pianists [[Vladimir Horowitz]], [[Sviatoslav Richter]], [[Emil Gilels]], [[Vladimir Sofronitsky]] and [[Evgeny Kissin]]; and vocalists [[Fyodor Shalyapin]], [[Mark Reizen]], [[Elena Obraztsova]], [[Tamara Sinyavskaya]], [[Nina Dorliak]], [[Galina Vishnevskaya]], [[Anna Netrebko]] and [[Dmitry Hvorostovsky]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia::Music|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=5 October 2009|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia/38636/Music}}</ref>

During the early 20th century, Russian ballet dancers [[Anna Pavlova]] and [[Vaslav Nijinsky]] rose to fame, and impresario [[Sergei Diaghilev]] and his [[Ballets Russes]]' travels abroad profoundly influenced the development of dance worldwide.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Garafola, L|title=Diaghilev's Ballets Russes|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=576|isbn=0-19-505701-5|year=1989}}</ref> Soviet ballet preserved the perfected 19th century traditions,<ref>{{cite web|author=K. K. Cashin|title=Alexander Pushkin's Influence on Russian Ballet—Chapter Five: Pushkin, Soviet Ballet, and Afterward|url=http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-04072005-133328/unrestricted/12_kkc_chap5.pdf|accessdate=27 December 2007|format=PDF}}</ref> and the Soviet Union's choreography schools produced many internationally famous stars, including [[Galina Ulanova]], [[Maya Plisetskaya]], [[Rudolf Nureyev]], and [[Mikhail Baryshnikov]]. The [[Bolshoi Ballet]] in Moscow and the [[Mariinsky Ballet]] in St Petersburg remain famous throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://petersburgcity.com/news/culture/2005/11/18/theatre/|title=A Tale of Two Operas|publisher=Petersburg City|accessdate=11 January 2008}}</ref>

Modern [[Russian rock]] music takes its roots both in the Western [[rock and roll]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], and in traditions of the [[Russian bards]] of the Soviet era, such as [[Vladimir Vysotsky]] and [[Bulat Okudzhava]].<ref>[http://www.russia-ic.com/culture_art/music/380/#r1 History of Rock Music in Russia] at Russia-InfoCentre</ref> Popular Russian rock groups include [[Mashina Vremeni]], [[DDT (band)|DDT]], [[Aquarium (group)|Aquarium]], [[Alisa]], [[Kino (band)|Kino]], [[Kipelov]], [[Nautilus Pompilius (band)|Nautilus Pompilius]], [[Aria (band)|Aria]], [[Grazhdanskaya Oborona]], [[Splean]] and [[Korol i Shut]]. [[Russian pop]] music developed from what was known in the Soviet times as ''estrada'' into full-fledged industry, with some performers gaining wide international recognition, such as [[t.A.T.u.]], [[Nu Virgos]] and [[Vitas]].

===Literature and philosophy===
{{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy|Russian poets|Russian playwrights|Russian novelists|Russian science fiction and fantasy}}
[[File:L.N.Tolstoy Prokudin-Gorsky.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Leo Tolstoy]], novelist and philosopher]]
In the 18th century, during the era of [[Russian Enlightenment]], the development of [[Russian literature]] was boosted by the works of [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] and [[Denis Fonvizin]]. By the early 19th century a modern native tradition had emerged, producing some of the greatest writers in Russian history. This period, known also as the [[Golden Age of Russian Poetry]], began with [[Alexander Pushkin]], who is considered the founder of the modern Russian literary language and often described as the "Russian Shakespeare".<ref>{{Cite book|author=Kelly, C|title=Russian Literature: A Very Short Introduction (Paperback)|publisher=Oxford Paperbacks|isbn=0-19-280144-9|year=2001}}</ref> It continued into the 19th century with the poetry of [[Mikhail Lermontov]] and [[Nikolay Nekrasov]], dramas of [[Alexander Ostrovsky]] and [[Anton Chekhov]], and the prose of [[Nikolai Gogol]] and [[Ivan Turgenev]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]] and [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] have been described by literary critics as the greatest novelists of all time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513793/Russian-literature|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate=11 April 2008|title=Russian literature; Leo Tolstoy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|work=Time Magazine |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,943893,00.html|accessdate=10 April 2008|title=Freaking-Out with Fyodor|author=Otto Friedrich|date=6 September 1971}}</ref>

By the 1880s, the age of the great novelists was over, and short fiction and poetry became the dominant genres. The next several decades became known as the [[Silver Age of Russian Poetry]], when the previously dominant [[literary realism]] was replaced by [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]]. Leading authors of this era include such poets as [[Valery Bryusov]], [[Vyacheslav Ivanov (poet)|Vyacheslav Ivanov]], [[Alexander Blok]], [[Nikolay Gumilev]] and [[Anna Akhmatova]], and novelists [[Leonid Andreyev]], [[Ivan Bunin]], and [[Maxim Gorky]].

[[Russian philosophy]] blossomed in the 19th century, when it was defined initially by the opposition of [[Westernizers]], advocating Western political and economical models, and [[Slavophiles]], insisting on developing Russia as a unique civilization. The latter group includes [[Nikolai Danilevsky]] and [[Konstantin Leontiev]], the founders of [[eurasianism]]. In its further development Russian philosophy was always marked by a deep connection to literature and interest in creativity, society, politics and nationalism; [[Russian cosmism]] and religious philosophy were other major areas. Notable philosophers of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries include [[Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)|Vladimir Solovyev]], [[Sergei Bulgakov]], and [[Vladimir Vernadsky]].

[[File:Alexander Pushkin 2013-10-06 17-38.jpg|thumb|[[Alexander Pushkin]]]]
Following the [[Russian Revolution]] of 1917 many prominent writers and philosophers left the country, including Bunin, [[Vladimir Nabokov]] and [[Nikolay Berdyayev]], while a new generation of talented authors joined together in an effort to create a distinctive [[working-class culture]] appropriate for the new Soviet state. In the 1930s censorship over literature was tightened in line with the policy of [[socialist realism]]. In the late 1950s restrictions on literature were eased, and by the 1970s and 1980s, writers were increasingly ignoring official guidelines. Leading authors of the Soviet era include novelists [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], [[Ilf and Petrov]], [[Mikhail Bulgakov]] and [[Mikhail Sholokhov]], and poets [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], [[Yevgeny Yevtushenko]], and [[Andrey Voznesensky]].

The Soviet Union was also a major producer of science fiction, written by authors like [[Arkady and Boris Strugatsky]], [[Kir Bulychov]], [[Alexander Belayev]] and [[Ivan Yefremov]].<ref>{{Cite book|author=McGuire, Patrick L.|title=Red stars: political aspects of Soviet science fiction. Studies in speculative fiction (Vol. 7, ill.)|publisher=UMI Research Press|isbn=0-8357-1579-5|year=1985}}{{Cite book|author=Glad, John|title=Russian Soviet science fiction and related critical activity|publisher=New York University|year=1971}}{{Cite book|author=Tevis, Yvonne Pacheco, Reginald, R. |title=East of the Sun: Russian and Eastern European Science Fiction. Science fiction and fantasy criticism (Vol. 5)|publisher=Ayer Company|isbn=0-88143-038-2|year=1983}}</ref> Traditions of [[Russian science fiction and fantasy]] are continued today by numerous writers.

===Cinema, animation and media===
{{Main|Cinema of Russia|Russian animation|Television in Russia}}
[[File:Medvedev - Russia Today 3.jpg|thumb|left|Former Russian President Dmitry Medvedev in the [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] studio of [[Russia Today TV]] with [[Margarita Simonyan]]]]
Russian and later [[Soviet cinema]] was a hotbed of invention in the period immediately following 1917, resulting in world-renowned films such as ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]'' by [[Sergei Eisenstein]].<ref name=film>{{cite web|title=Russia:Motion pictures|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|year=2007|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Eisenstein was a student of filmmaker and theorist [[Lev Kuleshov]], who developed the [[Soviet montage theory]] of film editing at the world's first film school, the [[All-Union Institute of Cinematography]]. [[Dziga Vertov]], whose ''kino-glaz'' ("film-eye") theory—that the camera, like the human eye, is best used to explore real life—had a huge impact on the development of documentary film making and cinema realism. The subsequent state policy of socialist realism somewhat limited creativity; however, many Soviet films in this style were artistically successful, including ''[[Chapaev (film)|Chapaev]]'', ''[[The Cranes Are Flying]]'', and ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]''.<ref name=film/>

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. [[Eldar Ryazanov]]'s and [[Leonid Gaidai]]'s comedies of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catch phrases still in use today. In 1961–68 [[Sergey Bondarchuk]] directed an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[War and Peace (film series)|film adaptation]] of Leo Tolstoy's epic ''[[War and Peace]]'', which was [[the most expensive film]] made in the Soviet Union.<ref>Birgit Beumers. ''A History of Russian Cinema''. Berg Publishers (2009). ISBN 978-1-84520-215-6. p. 143.</ref> In 1969, [[Vladimir Motyl]]'s ''[[White Sun of the Desert]]'' was released, a very popular film in a genre of [[ostern]]; the film is traditionally watched by [[cosmonauts]] before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905102633/http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html|archivedate=5 September 2008|publisher=Film Society of Lincoln Center|title=White Sun of the Desert|accessdate=18 January 2008}}</ref>

[[File:Shukhov tower shabolovka moscow 02.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Shukhov Tower]] in Moscow served early radio and TV broadcasting.]]
[[Russian animation]] dates back to late [[Russian Empire]] times. During the Soviet era, [[Soyuzmultfilm]] studio was the largest animation producer. Soviet animators developed a great variety of pioneering techniques and aesthetic styles, with prominent directors including [[Ivan Ivanov-Vano]], [[Fyodor Khitruk]] and [[Aleksandr Tatarsky]]. Many Soviet cartoon heroes such as the Russian-style [[Winnie-the-Pooh]], cute little [[Cheburashka]], Wolf and Hare from ''[[Nu, Pogodi!]]'', are iconic images in Russia and many surrounding countries.

The late 1980s and 1990s were a period of crisis in Russian cinema and animation. Although Russian filmmakers became free to express themselves, state subsidies were drastically reduced, resulting in fewer films produced. The early years of the 21st century have brought increased viewership and subsequent prosperity to the industry on the back of the economic revival. Production levels are already higher than in Britain and Germany.<ref>{{cite web|author=Dzieciolowski, Z|title=Kinoeye: Russia's reviving film industry|url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-Film/russian_film_3726.jsp|accessdate=27 December 2007}}</ref> Russia's total box-office revenue in 2007 was $565&nbsp;million, up 37% from the previous year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Entertainment & Media Industry worth $27.9 bn by 2011|publisher=joomag magazine|url=http://www.joomag.com/magazine/Russia/4228/p44|accessdate=3 October 2010}}</ref> In 2002 the ''[[Russian Ark]]'' became the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take. The traditions of Soviet animation were developed recently by such directors as [[Aleksandr Petrov (animator)|Aleksandr Petrov]] and studios like [[Melnitsa Animation]].

Russia was among the first countries to [[Radio Day|introduce radio]] and [[Timeline of the introduction of television|television]]. While there were few channels in the Soviet time, in the past two decades many new state and privately owned [[Russian language radio stations|radio stations]] and [[TV in Russia|TV channels]] have appeared. In 2005 a state-run English language [[Russia Today TV]] started broadcasting, and its Arabic version [[Rusiya Al-Yaum]] was launched in 2007.

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Russia}}
[[File:Reprezentacja Rosji2.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Russia national football team]] at [[UEFA Euro 2012]]]]

Combining the [[All-time Olympic Games medal count|total medals]] of the Soviet Union and Russia, the country is second among all nations by number of gold medals both at the [[Summer Olympics]] and at the [[Winter Olympics]]. Soviet and later [[Russia at the Olympics|Russian athletes]] have always been in the top three for the number of gold medals collected at the Summer Olympics. Soviet gymnasts, track-and-field athletes, weight lifters, wrestlers, boxers, fencers, shooters, cross country skiers, biathletes, speed skaters and figure skaters were consistently among the best in the world, along with Soviet basketball, handball, volleyball and ice hockey players.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.la84foundation.org/OlympicInformationCenter/OlympicReview/1974/ore84/ore84k.pdf|title=The USSR and Olympism|journal=[[Olympic Review]]|publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]]|issue=84|pages=530–557|date=October 1974|format=PDF |accessdate=28 March 2008}}</ref> The [[1980 Summer Olympics]] were held in Moscow while the [[2014 Winter Olympics]] were hosted in [[Sochi]].

[[File:RIAN archive 386859 KHL finals - Ak Bars vs. Lokomotiv Yaroslavl 1-0.jpg|thumb|[[Kontinental Hockey League|KHL]] finals, the league is considered to be the second-best in the world]]
Although [[ice hockey]] was only introduced during the Soviet era, the national team managed to win gold at almost all the [[Ice hockey at the Olympic Games|Olympics]] and [[IIHF|World Championships]] they contested. Russian players [[Valery Kharlamov]], [[Sergei Makarov (ice hockey)|Sergei Makarov]], [[Vyacheslav Fetisov]] and [[Vladislav Tretiak]] hold four of six positions in the [[IIHF]] ''Team of the Century''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iihf.com/channels/iihf-world-championship/news/news-singleview-world-championship/article/iihf-centennial-all-star-team.html|title=IIHF Centennial All-Star Team|publisher=Iihf.com|accessdate=27 April 2010}}{{Dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> Russia has not won the Olympic ice hockey tournament since the [[Unified Team at the Olympics|Unified Team]] won gold in 1992. Recently Russia won the [[2008 IIHF World Championships|2008]], [[2009 IIHF World Championship|2009]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iihf.com/home-of-hockey/news/news-singleview/browse/2/recap/3570.html|accessdate=11 May 2009|title=Pure gold: Russia repeats!|publisher=[[IIHF]]}}{{Dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> [[2012 IIHF World Championship|2012]] and the [[2014 IIHF World Championship]]s. Russia dominated the 2012 tournament, winning all of its ten matches—the first time any team had done so since the Soviet Union in 1989.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/blogs/nhl-puck-daddy/russia-dominates-slovakia-win-2012-iihf-gold-2014-205052024.html|title=Russia dominates Slovakia to win 2012 IIHF gold; 2014 Sochi groups announced|publisher=Yahoo Sports|date=20 May 2012}}</ref>

The [[Kontinental Hockey League]] (KHL) was founded in 2008 as a successor to the [[Russian Superleague]]. It is seen as a rival to the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL), is ranked the top hockey league in Europe as of 2009,<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian league tops first CHL ranking|url=http://www.iihf.com/en/home-of-hockey/news/news-singleview/browse/3/article/russian-league-tops-first-chl-ranking-1.html|accessdate=3 November 2009}}{{Dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> and the second-best in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iihf.com/fi/home-of-hockey/news/news-singleview/recap/6876.html|title=World of difference for KHL?|publisher=iihf.com|date=7 May 2012}}{{Dead link|date=May 2014}}</ref> It is an international professional ice hockey league in [[Eurasia]] and consists of 28 teams, of which 21 are based in Russia and 7 more are located in [[Latvia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Croatia]].

[[Bandy]], also known as [[Russian hockey]], is another traditionally popular ice sport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.rusbandy.ru/content.html@PageID=325|title=Russian Bandy Championship, 2006–7 season|publisher=bandy.ru|accessdate=3 October 2010}}</ref> The Soviet Union won all the [[Bandy World Championship for men|Bandy World Championships for men]] between 1957–79<ref>{{cite web|author=Ralph Hickok |url=http://www.hickoksports.com/history/bandy.shtml |title=Bandy |publisher=Hickoksports.com |date=18 February 2013 |accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> and some thereafter too. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia has continuously been one of the most successful teams, winning many world championships.

[[File:Dmitry Medvedev 20 May 2008-2.jpg|thumb|Dmitry Medvedev with the [[Russia men's national ice hockey team]]]]
[[File:Opening of XXII Winter Olympic Games (2338-13).jpg|thumb|Opening of the [[2014 Winter Olympics]]]]
Association football is one of the most popular sports in modern Russia. The Soviet national team became the first ever European Champions by winning [[Euro 1960]]. Appearing in four [[FIFA World Cup]]s from 1958 to 1970, [[Lev Yashin]] is regarded to be one of the greatest goalkeepers in the history of football, and was chosen on the [[FIFA World Cup Dream Team]].<ref name="FIFA">[http://www.fifa.com/classicfootball/players/player=174638/ "Yashin, the impregnable Spider"]. FIFA. Retrieved 28 November 2013</ref><ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sport/football/article-2353806/Greatest-XI-history-football.html "The greatest XI in the history of football&nbsp;... and there's no room for Ronaldo, Eusebio and Best"]. Daily Mail. Retrieved 28 November 2013</ref> The Soviet national team reached the final of [[Euro 1988]]. In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the [[Football at the Summer Olympics#Men's results|Olympic football tournament]]. Russian clubs [[PFC CSKA Moscow|CSKA Moscow]] and [[Zenit St Petersburg]] won the [[UEFA Cup]] in 2005 and 2008 respectively. The [[Russian national football team]] reached the semi-finals of [[Euro 2008]], losing only to the eventual champions Spain. Russia will host the [[2018 FIFA World Cup]], with 11 host cities located in the European part of the country and in the Ural region.

In 2007, the [[Russian national basketball team]] won the [[EuroBasket 2007|European Basketball Championship]]. Russian basketball club [[PBC CSKA Moscow]] is one of the top teams in Europe, winning the [[Euroleague]] in [[2005–06 Euroleague|2006]] and [[2007–08 Euroleague|2008]].

[[Larisa Latynina]], who currently holds the record for the most gold Olympic medals won by a woman (and held the record for most Olympic medals won per person from 1964 until 2012 when swimmer [[Michael Phelps]] replaced her record), established the USSR as the dominant force in gymnastics for many years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/SPORT/07/07/oly.olympians/index.html|publisher=CNN| title=Legendary Olympians|date=19 August 2008}}</ref> Today, Russia is the leading nation in [[rhythmic gymnastics]] with [[Yevgeniya Kanayeva]]. Russian [[synchronized swimming]] is the best in the world, with almost all gold medals at Olympics and World Championships having been swept by Russians in recent decades. [[Figure skating]] is another popular sport in Russia, especially [[pair skating]] and [[ice dancing]]. With the exception of [[Figure skating at the 2010 Winter Olympics|2010]] a Soviet or Russian pair has won gold at every Winter Olympics since 1964.

Since the end of the Soviet era, tennis has grown in popularity and Russia has produced a number of famous players, including [[Maria Sharapova]], the world's highest paid female athlete.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/22/women-athletes-endorsements-biz-sports-cx_tvr_kb_0722athletes.html|accessdate=1 August 2008|author=Tom Van Riper and Kurt Badenhausen|title=Top-Earning Female Athletes|work=Forbes|date=22 July 2008}}</ref> In martial arts, Russia produced the sport [[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo]] and renowned fighters, like [[Fedor Emelianenko]]. [[Chess]] is a widely popular pastime in Russia; from 1927, Russian grandmasters have held the [[world chess championship]] almost continuously.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessgames.com/wcc.html|title=Chessgames guide to the World Championship|publisher=Chessgames.com|accessdate=29 October 2010}}</ref>

The [[2014 Winter Olympics]] were held in Sochi in the south of Russia. Russia won the largest number of medals among the participating nations with 13 gold, 11 silver, and 9 bronze medals for a total of 33 medals. Commentators evaluated the Games as having been an overall success.<ref name="Sappenfield">{{cite news |last=Sappenfield |first=Mark |date=24 February 2014 |title=Sochi Olympics report card: So how good were Putin's Games? |url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Olympics/2014/0224/Sochi-Olympics-report-card-So-how-good-were-Putin-s-Games-video |newspaper=The Christian Science Monitor |accessdate=25 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="Grohmann2014">{{cite news |last=Grohmann |first=Karolos |date=23 February 2014 |title='Excellent' Sochi Games proved critics wrong, says IOC's Bach |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/23/olympics-sochi-bach-idINDEEA1M08W20140223 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=25 February 2014}}</ref>

Formula One is also becoming increasingly popular in Russia. In 2010 [[Vitaly Petrov]] became the first Russian to drive in Formula One. There had only been two Russian Grands Prix (in 1913 and 1914), but the [[Russian Grand Prix]] returned as part of the [[Formula One]] season in [[2014 Formula One season|2014]], as part of a six-year deal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia secures 2014 grand prix deal|url=http://en.espn.co.uk/f1/motorsport/story/31127.html|publisher=ESPN|accessdate=24 October 2011}}</ref>

===National holidays and symbols===
{{Main|Public holidays in Russia|Cultural icons of Russia}}
[[File:Alyye parusa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Scarlet Sails (tradition)|Scarlet Sails]] celebration on the [[Neva]] river in [[Saint Petersburg]]]]
There are seven [[public holidays in Russia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sras.org/russian_holidays|title=Official days off for public holidays in Russia |publisher=Sras.org|accessdate=29 October 2010}}</ref> except those always celebrated on Sunday. Russian New Year traditions resemble those of the Western Christmas, with [[New Year Tree]]s and gifts, and [[Ded Moroz]] ([[Father Frost]]) playing the same role as [[Santa Claus]]. [[Orthodox Christmas]] falls on 7 January, because the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] still follows the [[Julian calendar]], and all Orthodox holidays are 13 days after Western ones. Two other major Christian holidays are Easter and [[Trinity Sunday]]. [[Kurban Bayram]] and [[Uraza Bayram]] are celebrated by Russian Muslims.

Further Russian public holidays include [[Defender of the Fatherland Day]] (23 February), which honors Russian men, especially those serving in the army; [[International Women's Day]] (8 March), which combines the traditions of [[Mother's Day]] and [[Valentine's Day]]; [[Spring and Labor Day]] (1 May); [[Victory Day (9 May)|Victory Day]]; [[Russia Day]] (12 June); and [[Unity Day (Russia)|Unity Day]] (4 November), commemorating the popular uprising which expelled the Polish occupation force from Moscow in 1612.

[[Victory Day (9 May)|Victory Day]] is the second most popular holiday in Russia; it commemorates the victory over [[Nazism]] in the [[Great Patriotic War]]. A huge [[military parade]], hosted by the [[President of Russia]], is annually organised in Moscow on [[Red Square]]. Similar parades take place in all major Russian cities and cities with the status ''[[Hero city]]'' or ''City of Military Glory''.

Popular non-public holidays include [[Old New Year]] (the New Year according to the Julian Calendar on 14 January), [[Tatiana Day]] (students holiday on 25 January), [[Maslenitsa]] (a pre-Christian spring holiday a week before the [[Great Lent]]), [[Cosmonautics Day]] (in tribute to the first human trip into space), [[Ivan Kupala Day]] (another pre-Christian holiday on 7 July) and [[Peter and Fevronia Day]] (which takes place on 8 July and is the Russian analogue of Valentine's Day, focusing, however, on family love and fidelity).

[[File:Russian-Matroshka2.jpg|thumb|[[Matryoshka doll]] taken apart]]
State symbols of Russia include the [[Byzantine]] [[double-headed eagle]], combined with [[St. George of Moscow]] in the [[Russian coat of arms]]. The [[Russian flag]] dates from the late [[Tsardom of Russia]] period and has been widely used since the time of the [[Russian Empire]]. The [[Russian anthem]] shares its music with the [[Soviet Anthem]], though not the lyrics. The imperial [[motto]] ''God is with us'' and the Soviet motto ''Proletarians of all countries, unite!'' are now obsolete and no new motto has replaced them. The [[hammer and sickle]] and the full [[Soviet coat of arms]] are still widely seen in Russian cities as a part of old architectural decorations. The Soviet [[Red Star]]s are also encountered, often on military equipment and war memorials. The [[Red Banner]] continues to be honored, especially the [[Banner of Victory]] of 1945.

The [[Matryoshka doll]] is a recognizable symbol of Russia, and the towers of [[Moscow Kremlin]] and [[Saint Basil's Cathedral]] in Moscow are Russia's main architectural icons. [[Cheburashka]] is a mascot of the [[Russian national Olympic team]]. [[St. Mary]], [[St. Nicholas]], [[St. Andrew]], [[St. George]], [[St. Alexander Nevsky]], [[St. Sergius of Radonezh]] and [[St. Seraphim of Sarov]] are Russia's [[patron saint]]s. [[Chamomile]] is the [[national flower]], while [[birch]] is the [[national tree]]. The [[Russian bear]] is an animal symbol and a [[national personification]] of Russia, though this image has a Western origin and Russians themselves have accepted it only fairly recently. The native Russian national personification is [[Mother Russia]].

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Russia}}
[[File:PeterhofGrandCascade.JPG|thumb|left|[[Peterhof Palace#The Grand Cascade and Samson Fountain|Grand Cascade]] in [[Peterhof Palace|Peterhof]], a popular tourist destination in Saint Petersburg]]

Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet period, first domestic tourism and then international tourism, fueled by the rich cultural heritage and great natural variety of the country. Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the [[Golden Ring]] of ancient cities, cruises on the big rivers like the [[Volga]], and long journeys on the famous [[Trans-Siberian Railway]]. In 2013, Russia was visited by 28.4 million [[tourist]]s; it is the ninth most visited country in the world and the seventh most visited in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf|title=Tourism Highlights 2014|publisher=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization)|format=PDF|date=2014|accessdate=20 January 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Mamaev kurgan (ОКН).JPG|thumb|[[The Motherland Calls]] in [[Volgograd]] is the tallest statue of a woman in the world]]
The most visited destinations in Russia are Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the current and former capitals of the country. Recognized as [[World Cities]], they feature such world-renowned museums as the [[Tretyakov Gallery]] and the [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]], famous theaters like [[Bolshoi Theater|Bolshoi]] and [[Mariinsky Theater|Mariinsky]], ornate churches like Saint Basil's Cathedral, [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]], [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]] and [[Church of the Savior on Blood]], impressive fortifications like the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] and [[Peter and Paul Fortress]], beautiful squares and streets like [[Red Square]], [[Palace Square]], [[Tverskaya Street]] and [[Nevsky Prospect]]. Rich palaces and parks are found in the former imperial residences in suburbs of Moscow ([[Kolomenskoye]], [[Tsaritsyno Park|Tsaritsyno]]) and St Petersburg ([[Peterhof Palace|Peterhof]], [[Strelna]], [[Oranienbaum, Russia|Oranienbaum]], [[Gatchina Palace|Gatchina]], [[Pavlovsk Palace|Pavlovsk]] and [[Tsarskoye Selo]]). Moscow displays [[Soviet architecture]] at its best, along with [[Moscow International Business Center|modern skyscrapers]], while St Petersburg, nicknamed ''Venice of the North'', boasts of its classical architecture, many rivers, channels and [[Bridges in Saint Petersburg|bridges]].

[[Kazan]], the capital of [[Tatarstan]], shows a mix of Christian Russian and Muslim Tatar cultures. The city has registered a brand ''The Third Capital of Russia'', though a number of other major cities compete for this status, including [[Novosibirsk]], [[Yekaterinburg]] and [[Nizhny Novgorod]].

The warm subtropical Black Sea coast of Russia is the site for a number of popular sea resorts, like [[Sochi]], the follow-up host of the [[2014 Winter Olympics]]. Large artificial [[Federation Island]] in the sea near the Sochi of Khostinsky City District is shaped like the Russian Federation and is the site of hotels and offices. The mountains of the [[Northern Caucasus]] contain popular ski resorts such as [[Dombay, Russia|Dombay]]. The most famous natural destination in Russia is [[Lake Baikal]], ''the Blue Eye of Siberia''. This unique lake, the oldest and deepest in the world, has crystal-clear waters and is surrounded by [[taiga]]-covered mountains. Other popular natural destinations include [[Kamchatka]] with its volcanoes and geysers, [[Karelia]] with its lakes and [[granite]] rocks, the snowy [[Altai Mountains]], and the wild steppes of [[Tyva]].

==See also==
{{portal|Russia}}
{{Wikipedia books|Russia}}
* [[Geology of Russia]]
* [[Index of Soviet Union-related articles]]
* [[International rankings of Russia]]
* [[Outline of Russia]]
* [[Timeline of Russian history]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Russia}}
{{wiktionary|Russia|Россия|Русь}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Russia}}
* {{wikiatlas|Russia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|60189}}
* {{CIA World Factbook link|rs|Russia}}
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/russia.htm Russia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17839672 Russia] from the [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/513251/Russia Russia] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

;Government
* [http://www.gov.ru/index_en.html Official Russian governmental portal]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/RS.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
* [http://en.rian.ru/ Russian News Agency "Ria Novosti"]
* [http://english.ruvr.ru/2010/09/24/22168374.html Russian radio "Voice of Russia"]{{Dead link|date=March 2015}}

;Other
* [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552653 Post-Soviet Problems] from the [https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [http://rbth.ru/ Russia Beyond the Headlines] International news project about Russia
* [http://www.waytorussia.net/WhatIsRussia/Intro.html Way to Russia. An Introduction to Russia and Russian People]
* [http://russiatrek.org/ Russia cities and regions guide]
* [http://www.russia-travel.com/ Official Russia Travel Guide]
* [http://russianconsulate.com/ Russian Consulate]
* [http://rbth.ru/ Russia Beyond the Headlines] International news project about Russia
* [http://www.moscow-russia-insiders-guide.com/ Moscow Russia Insider's Guide] Moscow and Russia through Muscovite's eyes.

{{Russia topics}}
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{{Subdivisions of Russia}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Russia}}
{{Lists of Russians}}
{{navboxes|title=[[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale|list=
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Geographic location
| Centre = {{flagicon|RUS}}
| North = Arctic Ocean
| Northeast = [[Bering Strait]]
| East = Pacific Ocean
| Southeast = [[Sea of Japan]]
| South = {{flagicon|PRK}} {{flagicon|PRC}} {{flagicon|MNG}} {{flagicon|KAZ}} {{flagicon|AZE}} {{flagicon|GEO}} {{flagicon|Abkhazia}} {{flagicon|South Ossetia}}
| Southwest = [[Black Sea]]
| West = [[Black Sea]] {{flagicon|UKR}} {{flagicon|BLR}} {{flagicon|LVA}} {{flagicon|EST}} [[Gulf of Finland]] {{flagicon|FIN}} {{flagicon|LTU}} {{flagicon|POL}}
| Northwest = {{flagicon|NOR}} Arctic Ocean
}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Russia| ]]
[[Category:Russia| ]]
[[Category:BRICS nations]]
[[Category:BRICS nations]]

Revision as of 17:03, 13 August 2015

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