User:Colin/Rotaviral enteritis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Colin/Rotaviral enteritis

Rotaviral enteritis, is the leading severe diarrhoeal disease of infants and young children, affecting nearly every child at least once by the age of five.[1] It is caused by rotavirus, a genus of double-stranded RNA virus in the taxonomic family Reoviridae. Rotavirus infects cells that line the small intestine, and produces an enterotoxin. The toxin causes gastroenteritis with severe diarrhoea and potentially fatal dehydration.

There are seven species of rotavirus, referred to as A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Rotavirus A, which is responsible for more than 90% of rotaviral infections in humans, is further subdivided into strains called serotypes.[2] Although rotavirus was discovered in 1973,[3] and is now known to account for up to 50% of infants and children hospitalised with severe diarrhoea,[4] the importance of rotavirus is not widely recognised within the public health community, particularly in developing countries.[5]

Rotaviral enteritis is spread by the fecal–oral route; large numbers of rotavirus are excreted by infected people. With each infection, immunity develops and subsequent infections are less severe.[6] Public health campaigns to reduce morbidity and mortality from rotaviral enteritis focus on the benefits of oral rehydration therapy and vaccination.[7]

In developing countries, rotaviral enteritis has been estimated to result in an average of 611,000 deaths each year in children under five years of age, [8] and almost two million hospitalisations.[5] In the United States each year there are an estimated 2.7 million cases of severe rotaviral enteritis in children, resulting in almost 60,000 hospitalisations, and around 37 deaths.[9] Rotaviral enteritis is also an important veterinary disease; as with humans, young animals are most susceptible.[10]

Signs and symptoms[edit]

Rotaviral gastroenteritis is a mild to severe disease characterised by vomiting, watery diarrhoea, and low-grade fever. Once a child is infected by the virus, it takes about two days, (the incubation period), before symptoms appear.[11] Symptoms often start with vomiting followed by four to eight days of profuse diarrhoea. Most children recover completey from the infection.[12]

Rotavirus A infections occur throughout life, but most recurrent infections are mild or asymptomatic.[13] Children six months to two years of age, the elderly, and the immunocompromised are particularly susceptible to more severe symptoms. Symptoms usually accompany primary infection, which is followed by protection against subsequent symptomatic infection.[1] Symptomatic infection rates are highest in children under two years of age, and lowest in those over 45 years of age.[14][15] Rotavirus infection is common in the newborn but is often associated with mild or asymptomatic disease.[16][17] Rotavirus infections of adults also occur, and frequent asymptomatic adult infections may be important in maintaining the transmission of infection in the community.[18]

Cause[edit]

Main article: Rotavirus
Rotavirus A in the faeces of an infected child

The causitive agent is the rotavirus, which is transmitted by the fecal-oral route, contact contaminated surfaces and objects,[19] and possibly by the respiratory route.[20] The faeces of an infected person can contain more than 10 million million (10 trillion) infectious particles per gram;[13] only 10–100 of these are required to transmit infection to another person.[21]

Rotaviruses are stable in the environment and have been found in estuary samples at levels as high as 1–5 infectious particles per gallon.[22] Sanitary measures adequate for bacteria and parasites seem to be ineffective in endemic control of rotavirus, as similar incidence of rotavirus infection is observed in countries with both high and low health standards.[20]

There are seven species of rotavirus, referred to as A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. Humans are primarily infected by species A, B and C, most commonly by species A. All seven species cause disease in animals.[2]

Within rotavirus A there are different strains, called serotypes.[23] Two genes determine these serotypes, and a strain of rotavirus A is classified both by its G and P type. Serotyping of rotavirus A is thus complex; each virus has a P-type and a G-type. P-type is indicated by a number for the P-serotype and by a number in square brackets for the coresponding P-genotype. G-serotypes and are similarly numbered but the G-genotype number is the same as the G-serotype. For example, the rotavirus strain Wa is defined as P1A[8]G1. This dual classification system is similar to that used for influenza virus.[24] Because the genes that determine G-types and P-types can be passed on separately to offspring various, combinations occur in any one strain.[25]

Mechanism[edit]

Electron micrograph of a rotavirus infected enterocyte (top) compared to an uninfected cell (bottom). The bar = approx. 500 nm

The diarrhoea is caused by several mechanisms which include: inadequate digestion that occurs because of the destruction of enterocytes, an activation of the enteric nervous system, and the flow of fluid into the gut from the tissues and blood that is caused by the rotavirus protein, NSP4, which is a toxin.[26] The toxin causes cells to become permeable and damaged. Healthy enterocytes secrete lactase into the small intestine and milk intolerance caused by lactase deficiency is a particular symptom of rotavirus infection[27][28] and this can persist for weeks.[29] Often this causes a recurrence of mild diarrhoea following the reintroduction of milk into the child's diet. The diarrhoea is caused by bacterial fermentation of lactose in the gut.[30]

Diagnosis[edit]

Diagnosis of infection with rotavirus normally follows diagnosis of gastroenteritis as the cause of severe diarrhea. Most children admitted to hospital with gastroenteritis are tested for rotavirus A.[31][32] Specific diagnosis of infection with rotavirus A is made by identification of the virus in the patient's stool by enzyme immunoassay. Several licensed test kits are used which are sensitive, specific and detect all serotypes of rotavirus A.[33][34] Other methods, electron microscopy and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, are used in research laboratories.[35] Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) can detect and identify all species and serotypes of human rotavirus.[36]

Prevention[edit]

Main article: Rotavirus Vaccine Program

In 2003 the World Health Organization and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control established the Rotavirus Vaccine Program to reduce child morbidity and mortality from diarrhoeal disease by making a vaccine against rotavirus available for use in developing countries.[37]

In 2006, two vaccines against Rotavirus A infection were shown to be safe and effective in children: Rotarix by GlaxoSmithKline[38] and RotaTeq by Merck.[39] Both are taken orally and contain disabled live virus. Rotavirus vaccines are currently only available in Europe,[1] and the US.[2]

Treatment[edit]

Treatment of acute rotaviral enteritis is nonspecific and involves management of symptoms and, most importantly, maintenance of hydration.[7] If untreated, children can die from the resulting severe dehydration.[40] Depending on the severity of diarrhoea, treatment consists of oral rehydration with plain water, water plus salts, or water plus salts and sugar.[41] Some infections are serious enough to warrant hospitalisation where fluids are given by intravenous drip or nasogastric tube, and the child's electrolytes and blood sugar are monitored.[31]

Prognosis[edit]

Rotaviral enteritis rarely leads to complications in the well managed child.[42] There are reports of complications involving the central nervous system (CNS) where rotavirus was detected in the fluid of the CNS in cases of encephalitis and meningitis,[43][44][45] and recent studies have confirmed that rotavirus infection is not confined only to the gut but can cause viremia.[46]

Epidemiology[edit]

The seasonal variation of rotavirus A infections in a region of England: rates of infection peak during the winter months.

Rotavirus A[edit]

Rotavirus A is endemic worldwide and each year, rotavirus causes millions of cases of diarhoea in developing countries, almost 2 million resulting in hospitalisation[5] and an estimated 611,000 resulting in death. [8] The major role of rotavirus in causing diarrhoea is not widely recognised within the public health community, particularly in developing countries.[5] Almost every child has been infected with rotavirus by age five.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). Boys are twice as likely to be admitted to hospital than girls [47] [4] Rotavirus A account for more than 90% of rotavirus gastroenteritis in humans.[48] Over 2.7 million cases of rotavirus gastroenteritis occur annually in the U.S., 60,000 children are hospitalised and around 37 die from the results of the infection.[9] In some children symptomatic re-infections by rotavirus occur and these are often, but not always, caused by different serotypes.[6][49]

Children dead before age 5 due to rotavirus A
Country Rate or range Published Source
Vietnam 1 in 61 to 1 in 113 2006 [50]
Bangladesh 1 in 390 to 1 in 660 2007 [51]
Venezuela 1 in 1800 2007 [52]
European Union 1 in 20433 2006 [53]
United States 1 in 21675 2007 [9]

In temperate areas, rotavirus occurs primarily in the winter, but in the tropics it occurs throughout the year.[54] This is partly explained by seasonal changes in temperature and humidity.[55][56] The number attributable to food contamination is unknown.[57]

Outbreaks of rotavirus A diarrhoea are common among hospitalised infants, young children attending day care centres, and elderly persons in nursing homes. An outbreak caused by contaminated municipal water occurred in Colorado in 1981.[58] During 2005 the largest recorded epidemic of diarrhoea occurred in Nicaragua. This unusually large and severe outbreak was associated with mutations in the rotavirus A genome, possibly helping the virus escape the prevalent immunity in the population.[59] A similar large outbreak occurred in Brazil in 1977.[60]

Rotavirus B[edit]

Rotavirus B, also called adult diarrhoea rotavirus or ADRV, has caused major epidemics of severe diarrhoea affecting thousands of people of all ages in China. Rotavirus B caused infections in India in 1998 and this strain was named CAL. Unlike ADRV, the CAL strain is endemic.[61][62]

Epidemics of rotavirus B involving thousands of people have occurred in China as a result of sewage contamination of drinking water.[63][64] To date, outbreaks caused by rotavirus B have been confined to mainland China, but seroepidemiological surveys indicate a lack of immunity to rotavirus B in the US.[65]

Rotavirus C[edit]

Rotavirus C has been associated with rare and sporadic cases of diarrhoea in children in many countries but outbreaks were first reported in Japan and England.[66][67]

History[edit]

One of Flewett's original electron micrographs

In 1943, Jacob Light and Horace Hodes proved that an infectious agent causing scours in cattle was a virus.[68] Three decades later, preserved samples of that virus were shown to be rotavirus.[69] In 1973, Ruth Bishop and collegues from the Royal Children's Hospital in Melbourne, Australia discovered a virus that caused gastroenteritis in children.[3][70] Thomas Henry Flewett suggested this be named rotavirus after observing that, viewed through an electron microscope, a rotavirus particle looks like a wheel (rota in Latin).[71][72]

In the mid-1980s the first candidate vaccines were evaluated.[73] In 1998 a rotavirus vaccine was licensed for use in the United States. Clinical trials in the United States, Finland, and Venezuela had found it to be 80 to 100% effective at preventing severe diarrhoea caused by rotavirus A, and researchers had detected no statistically significant serious adverse effects.[74][75] The manufacturer of the vaccine, however, withdrew it from the market in 1999, after it was discovered that the vaccine may have contributed to an increased risk for intussusception, or bowel obstruction, in one of every 12,000 vaccinated infants.[76] The experience provoked intense debate about the relative risks and benefits of a rotavirus vaccine.[77] In 2006, two vaccines against Rotavirus A infection were shown to be safe and effective in children.[78]

Veterinary[edit]

Rotaviral enteritis is also a common disease of young animals, including mammals; apes,[79] cattle,[80] pigs,[81] sheep,[10] rats,[82] cats and dogs,[83] mice,[84] rabbits[85] and birds including chickens and turkeys.[86] Animal rotaviruses are a potential reservoir for genetic exchange with human rotaviruses. There is evidence that animal rotaviruses can infect humans, either by direct transmission of the virus or by contributing one or several RNA segments to reassortants with human strains.[87][88] Rotaviral enteritis in livestock can lead to economic loss to farmers because of costs of treatment associated with high morbidity and mortality rates.[10]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Velázquez FR, Matson DO, Calva JJ, Guerrero L, Morrow AL, Carter-Campbell S, Glass RI, Estes MK, Pickering LK, Ruiz-Palacios GM (1996). "Rotavirus infections in infants as protection against subsequent infections". N. Engl. J. Med. 335 (14): 1022–8. PMID 8793926.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b Beards GM, Brown DW (1988). "The antigenic diversity of rotaviruses: significance to epidemiology and vaccine strategies". Eur. J. Epidemiol. 4 (1): 1–11. PMID 2833405.
  3. ^ a b Bishop RF, Davidson GP, Holmes IH, Ruck BJ (1973). "Virus particles in epithelial cells of duodenal mucosa from children with acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis". Lancet. 2 (7841): 1281–3. PMID 4127639.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b Rheingans RD, Heylen J, Giaquinto C (2006). "Economics of rotavirus gastroenteritis and vaccination in Europe: what makes sense?". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25 (1 Suppl): S48–55. PMID 16397429.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c d Simpson E, Wittet S, Bonilla J, Gamazina K, Cooley L, Winkler JL (2007). "Use of formative research in developing a knowledge translation approach to rotavirus vaccine introduction in developing countries". BMC Public Health. 7: 281. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-281. PMID 17919334.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b Linhares AC, Gabbay YB, Mascarenhas JD, Freitas RB, Flewett TH, Beards GM (1988). "Epidemiology of rotavirus subgroups and serotypes in Belem, Brazil: a three-year study". Ann. Inst. Pasteur Virol. 139 (1): 89–99. PMID 2849961.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ a b Diggle L (2007). "Rotavirus diarrhoea and future prospects for prevention". Br J Nurs. 16 (16): 970–4. PMID 18026034.
  8. ^ a b Parashar UD, Gibson CJ, Bresse JS, Glass RI (2006). "Rotavirus and severe childhood diarrhea". Emerging Infect. Dis. 12 (2): 304–6. PMID 16494759.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b c Fischer TK, Viboud C, Parashar U; et al. (2007). "Hospitalizations and deaths from diarrhea and rotavirus among children <5 years of age in the United States, 1993–2003". J. Infect. Dis. 195 (8): 1117–25. doi:10.1086/512863. PMID 17357047. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ a b c Holland RE (1990). "Some infectious causes of diarrhea in young farm animals" (PDF). Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 3 (4): 345–75. PMID 2224836. Cite error: The named reference "pmid2224836" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  11. ^ Hochwald C, Kivela L (1999). "Rotavirus vaccine, live, oral, tetravalent (RotaShield)". Pediatr Nurs. 25 (2): 203–4, 207. PMID 10532018.
  12. ^ Haffejee IE (1991). "The pathophysiology, clinical features and management of rotavirus diarrhoea". Q. J. Med. 79 (288): 289–99. PMID 1649479.
  13. ^ a b Bishop RF (1996). "Natural history of human rotavirus infection". Arch. Virol. Suppl. 12: 119–28. PMID 9015109.
  14. ^ Bernstein DI, Sander DS, Smith VE, Schiff GM, Ward RL (1991). "Protection from rotavirus reinfection: 2-year prospective study". J. Infect. Dis. 164 (2): 277–83. PMID 1649875.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ Koopman JS, Monto AS (1989). "The Tecumseh Study. XV: Rotavirus infection and pathogenicity". Am. J. Epidemiol. 130 (4): 750–9. PMID 2549788.
  16. ^ Cameron DJ, Bishop RF, Veenstra AA, Barnes GL (1978). "Noncultivable viruses and neonatal diarrhea: fifteen-month survey in a newborn special care nursery" (PDF). J. Clin. Microbiol. 8 (1): 93–8. PMID 209058.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Grillner L, Broberger U, Chrystie I, Ransjö U (1985). "Rotavirus infections in newborns: an epidemiological and clinical study". Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 17 (4): 349–55. PMID 3003889.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ Hrdy DB (1987). "Epidemiology of rotaviral infection in adults". Rev. Infect. Dis. 9 (3): 461–9. PMID 3037675.
  19. ^ Butz AM, Fosarelli P, Dick J, Cusack T, Yolken R (1993). "Prevalence of rotavirus on high-risk fomites in day-care facilities". Pediatrics. 92 (2): 202–5. PMID 8393172.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ a b Dennehy PH (2000). "Transmission of rotavirus and other enteric pathogens in the home". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 19 (10 Suppl): S103–5. PMID 11052397. Cite error: The named reference "pmid11052397" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ Graham DY, Dufour GR, Estes MK (1987). "Minimal infective dose of rotavirus". Arch. Virol. 92 (3–4): 261–71. PMID 3028333.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Rao VC, Seidel KM, Goyal SM, Metcalf TG, Melnick JL (1984). "Isolation of enteroviruses from water, suspended solids, and sediments from Galveston Bay: survival of poliovirus and rotavirus adsorbed to sediments" (PDF). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 48 (2): 404–9. PMID 6091548.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ Santos N, Hoshino Y (2005). "Global distribution of rotavirus serotypes/genotypes and its implication for the development and implementation of an effective rotavirus vaccine". Rev. Med. Virol. 15 (1): 29–56. doi:10.1002/rmv.448. PMID 15484186.
  24. ^ Desselberger U, Iturriza-Gómara M, Gray JJ (2001). "Rotavirus epidemiology and surveillance". Novartis Found. Symp. 238: 125–47, discussion 147–52. PMID 11444024.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Desselberger U, Wolleswinkel-van den Bosch J, Mrukowicz J, Rodrigo C, Giaquinto C, Vesikari T (2006). "Rotavirus types in Europe and their significance for vaccination". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25 (1 Suppl): S30–41. PMID 16397427.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Ball JM, Mitchell DM, Gibbons TF, Parr RD (2005). "Rotavirus NSP4: a multifunctional viral enterotoxin". Viral Immunol. 18 (1): 27–40. doi:10.1089/vim.2005.18.27. PMID 15802952.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Jourdan N, Brunet JP, Sapin C; et al. (1998). "Rotavirus infection reduces sucrase-isomaltase expression in human intestinal epithelial cells by perturbing protein targeting and organization of microvillar cytoskeleton". J. Virol. 72 (9): 7228–36. PMID 9696817. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Davidson GP, Barnes GL (1979). "Structural and functional abnormalities of the small intestine in infants and young children with rotavirus enteritis". Acta Paediatr Scand. 68 (2): 181–6. PMID 217231.
  29. ^ Ouwehand A, Vesterlund S (2003). "Health aspects of probiotics". IDrugs. 6 (6): 573–80. PMID 12811680.
  30. ^ Arya SC (1984). "Rotaviral infection and intestinal lactase level". J. Infect. Dis. 150 (5): 791. PMID 6436397.
  31. ^ a b Patel MM, Tate JE, Selvarangan R; et al. (2007). "Routine laboratory testing data for surveillance of rotavirus hospitalizations to evaluate the impact of vaccination". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 26 (10): 914–9. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e31812e52fd. PMID 17901797. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "pmid17901797" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  32. ^ "The paediatric burden of rotavirus disease in Europe". Epidemiol. Infect. 134 (5): 908–16. 2006. doi:10.1017/S0950268806006091. PMID 16650331.
  33. ^ Smith TF, Wold AD, Espy MJ, Marshall WF (1993). "New developments in the diagnosis of viral diseases". Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 7 (2): 183–201. PMID 8345165.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Beards GM, Campbell AD, Cottrell NR, Peiris JS, Rees N, Sanders RC, Shirley JA, Wood HC, Flewett TH (1984). "Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays based on polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies for rotavirus detection" (PDF). J. Clin. Microbiol. 19 (2): 248–54. PMID 6321549.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Beards GM (1988). "Laboratory diagnosis of viral gastroenteritis". Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 7 (1): 11–3. PMID 3132369.
  36. ^ Fischer TK, Gentsch JR (2004). "Rotavirus typing methods and algorithms". Rev. Med. Virol. 14 (2): 71–82. doi:10.1002/rmv.411. PMID 15027000.
  37. ^ Glass RI, Parashar UD, Bresee JS; et al. (2006). "Rotavirus vaccines: current prospects and future challenges". Lancet. 368 (9532): 323–32. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68815-6. PMID 16860702. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ O'Ryan M (2007). "Rotarix (RIX4414): an oral human rotavirus vaccine". Expert review of vaccines. 6 (1): 11–9. doi:10.1586/14760584.6.1.11. PMID 17280473.
  39. ^ Matson DO (2006). "The pentavalent rotavirus vaccine, RotaTeq". Seminars in paediatric infectious diseases. 17 (4): 195–9. doi:10.1053/j.spid.2006.08.005. PMID 17055370.
  40. ^ Alam NH, Ashraf H (2003). "Treatment of infectious diarrhea in children". Paediatr Drugs. 5 (3): 151–65. PMID 12608880.
  41. ^ Sachdev HP (1996). "Oral rehydration therapy". Journal of the Indian Medical Association. 94 (8): 298–305. PMID 8855579.
  42. ^ Ramig RF (2007). "Systemic rotavirus infection". Expert review of anti-infective therapy. 5 (4): 591–612. doi:10.1586/14787210.5.4.591. PMID 17678424.
  43. ^ Goto T, Kimura H, Numazaki K, Akiyama M, Kato M, Noda M, Nozaki Y, Tanaka-Taya K, Taniguchi K, Yamagata T, Nishio O, Oogane T, Momoi MY, Okabe N (2007). "A case of meningoencephalitis associated with G1P[8] rotavirus infection in a Japanese child": 1–4. doi:10.1080/00365540701466249. PMID 17852929. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ Kehle J, Metzger-Boddien C, Tewald F, Wald M, Schüürmann J, Enders G (2003). "First case of confirmed rotavirus meningoencephalitis in Germany". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22 (5): 468–70. PMID 12797316.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ Pager C, Steele D, Gwamanda P, Driessen M (2000). "A neonatal death associated with rotavirus infection—detection of rotavirus dsRNA in the cerebrospinal fluid". S. Afr. Med. J. 90 (4): 364–5. PMID 10957919.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Widdowson MA, Bresee JS, Gentsch JR, Glass RI (2005). "Rotavirus disease and its prevention". Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 21 (1): 26–31. PMID 15687881.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Ryan MJ, Ramsay M, Brown D, Gay NJ, Farrington CP, Wall PG (1996). "Hospital admissions attributable to rotavirus infection in England and Wales". J. Infect. Dis. 174 Suppl 1: S12–8. PMID 8752285.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ^ Leung AK, Kellner JD, Davies HD (2005). "Rotavirus gastroenteritis". Adv Ther. 22 (5): 476–87. PMID 16418157.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ De Champs C, Laveran H, Peigue-Lafeuille H; et al. (1991). "Sequential rotavirus infections: characterization of serotypes and electrophoretypes". Res. Virol. 142 (1): 39–45. PMID 1647052. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Anh DD, Thiem VD, Fischer TK, Canh DG, Minh TT, Tho le H, Van Man N, Luan le T, Kilgore P, von Seidlein L, Glass RI (2006). "The burden of rotavirus diarrhea in Khanh Hoa Province, Vietnam: baseline assessment for a rotavirus vaccine trial". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25 (1): 37–40. PMID 16395100.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Tanaka G, Faruque AS, Luby SP, Malek MA, Glass RI, Parashar UD (2007). "Deaths from rotavirus disease in Bangladeshi children: estimates from hospital-based surveillance". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 26 (11): 1014–8. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e318125721c. PMID 17984808.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  52. ^ Pérez-Schael I, Salinas B, González R, Salas H, Ludert JE, Escalona M, Alcalá A, Rosas MA, Materán M (2007). "Rotavirus mortality confirmed by etiologic identification in Venezuelan children with diarrhea". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 26 (5): 393–7. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000260252.48129.86. PMID 17468648.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ^ Soriano-Gabarró M, Mrukowicz J, Vesikari T, Verstraeten T (2006). "Burden of rotavirus disease in European Union countries". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25 (1 Suppl): S7–S11. PMID 16397431.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ Cook SM, Glass RI, LeBaron CW, Ho MS (1990). "Global seasonality of rotavirus infections". Bull. World Health Organ. 68 (2): 171–7. PMID 1694734.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Moe K, Harper GJ (1983). "The effect of relative humidity and temperature on the survival of bovine rotavirus in aerosol". Arch. Virol. 76 (3): 211–6. PMID 6307226.
  56. ^ Moe K, Shirley JA (1982). "The effects of relative humidity and temperature on the survival of human rotavirus in faeces". Arch. Virol. 72 (3): 179–86. PMID 6287970.
  57. ^ Koopmans M, Brown D (1999). "Seasonality and diversity of Group A rotaviruses in Europe". Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992). Supplement. 88 (426): 14–9. PMID 10088906.
  58. ^ Hopkins RS, Gaspard GB, Williams FP, Karlin RJ, Cukor G, Blacklow NR (1984). "A community waterborne gastroenteritis outbreak: evidence for rotavirus as the agent". American journal of public health. 74 (3): 263–5. PMID 6320684.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Bucardo F, Karlsson B, Nordgren J; et al. (2007). "Mutated G4P[8] rotavirus associated with a nationwide outbreak of gastroenteritis in Nicaragua in 2005". J. Clin. Microbiol. 45 (3): 990–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.01992-06. PMID 17229854. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  60. ^ Linhares AC, Pinheiro FP, Freitas RB, Gabbay YB, Shirley JA, Beards GM (1981). "An outbreak of rotavirus diarrhea among a non-immune, isolated South American Indian community". Am. J. Epidemiol. 113 (6): 703–10. PMID 6263087.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Kelkar SD, Zade JK (2004). "Group B rotaviruses similar to strain CAL-1, have been circulating in Western India since 1993". Epidemiol. Infect. 132 (4): 745–9. PMID 15310177.
  62. ^ Ahmed MU, Kobayashi N, Wakuda M, Sanekata T, Taniguchi K, Kader A, Naik TN, Ishino M, Alam MM, Kojima K, Mise K, Sumi A (2004). "Genetic analysis of group B human rotaviruses detected in Bangladesh in 2000 and 2001". J. Med. Virol. 72 (1): 149–55. doi:10.1002/jmv.10546. PMID 14635024.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  63. ^ Hung T, Chen GM, Wang CG; et al. (1984). "Waterborne outbreak of rotavirus diarrhea in adults in China caused by a novel rotavirus". Lancet. 1 (8387): 1139–42. PMID 6144874. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ Fang ZY, Ye Q, Ho MS; et al. (1989). "Investigation of an outbreak of adult diarrhea rotavirus in China". J. Infect. Dis. 160 (6): 948–53. PMID 2555422. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  65. ^ Penaranda ME, Ho MS, Fang ZY; et al. (1989). "Seroepidemiology of adult diarrhea rotavirus in China, 1977 to 1987" (PDF). J. Clin. Microbiol. 27 (10): 2180–3. PMID 2479654. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  66. ^ Brown DW, Campbell L, Tomkins DS, Hambling MH (1989). "School outbreak of gastroenteritis due to atypical rotavirus". Lancet. 2 (8665): 737–8. PMID 2570978.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Kuzuya M, Fujii R, Hamano M, Nishijima M, Ogura H (2007). "Detection and molecular characterization of human group C rotaviruses in Okayama Prefecture, Japan, between 1986 and 2005". J. Med. Virol. 79 (8): 1219–28. doi:10.1002/jmv.20910. PMID 17596825.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ Light JS, Hodes HL (1943). "Studies on Epidemic Diarrhea of the New-born: Isolation of a Filtrable Agent Causing Diarrhea in Calves". Am J Public Health Nations Health. 33 (12): 1451–1454. PMID 18015921.
  69. ^ Mebus CA, Wyatt RG, Sharpee RL; et al. (1976). "Diarrhea in gnotobiotic calves caused by the reovirus-like agent of human infantile gastroenteritis" (PDF). Infect. Immun. 14 (2): 471–4. PMID 184047. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Bishop RF, Davidson GP, Holmes IH, Ruck BJ (1973). "Letter: Evidence for viral gastroenteritis". N. Engl. J. Med. 289 (20): 1096–7. PMID 4742237.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  71. ^ Flewett TH, Woode GN (1978). "The rotaviruses". Arch. Virol. 57 (1): 1–23. PMID 77663.
  72. ^ Flewett TH, Bryden AS, Davies H, Woode GN, Bridger JC, Derrick JM (1974). "Relation between viruses from acute gastroenteritis of children and newborn calves". Lancet. 2 (7872): 61–3. PMID 4137164.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  73. ^ Vesikari T, Isolauri E, Delem A; et al. (1985). "Clinical efficacy of the RIT 4237 live attenuated bovine rotavirus vaccine in infants vaccinated before a rotavirus epidemic". J. Pediatr. 107 (2): 189–94. PMID 3894608. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  74. ^ "Rotavirus vaccine for the prevention of rotavirus gastroenteritis among children. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)". MMWR Recomm Rep. 48 (RR-2): 1–20. 1999. PMID 10219046.
  75. ^ Kapikian AZ (2001). "A rotavirus vaccine for prevention of severe diarrhoea of infants and young children: development, utilization and withdrawal". Novartis Found. Symp. 238: 153–71, discussion 171–9. PMID 11444025.
  76. ^ Bines JE (2005). "Rotavirus vaccines and intussusception risk". Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 21 (1): 20–5. PMID 15687880.
  77. ^ Bines J (2006). "Intussusception and rotavirus vaccines". Vaccine. 24 (18): 3772–6. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.031. PMID 16099078.
  78. ^ Dennehy PH (2008). "Rotavirus vaccines: an overview". Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 21 (1): 198–208. doi:10.1128/CMR.00029-07. PMID 18202442.
  79. ^ Ashley CR, Caul EO, Clarke SK, Corner BD, Dunn S (1978). "Rotavirus infections of apes". Lancet. 2 (8087): 477. PMID 79844.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  80. ^ Wani SA, Bhat MA, Ishaq SM, Ashrafi MA (2004). "Determination of bovine rotavirus G genotypes in Kashmir, India". Rev. - Off. Int. Epizoot. 23 (3): 931–6. PMID 15861888.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  81. ^ Saif LJ (1999). "Enteric viral infections of pigs and strategies for induction of mucosal immunity". Advances in veterinary medicine. 41: 429–46. PMID 9890034.
  82. ^ Pérez-Cano FJ, Castell M, Castellote C, Franch A (2007). "Characterization of Clinical and Immune Response in a Rotavirus Diarrhea Model in Suckling Lewis Rats". Pediatr Res. doi:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318159a273. PMID 17957154.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  83. ^ Enriquez C, Nwachuku N, Gerba CP (2001). "Direct exposure to animal enteric pathogens". Reviews on environmental health. 16 (2): 117–31. PMID 11512628.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  84. ^ Feng N, Franco MA, Greenberg HB (1997). "Murine model of rotavirus infection". Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 412: 233–40. PMID 9192019.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  85. ^ Thouless ME, DiGiacomo RF, Deeb BJ, Howard H (1988). "Pathogenicity of rotavirus in rabbits" (PDF). J. Clin. Microbiol. 26 (5): 943–7. PMID 2838507.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  86. ^ Guy JS (1998). "Virus infections of the gastrointestinal tract of poultry" (PDF). Poult. Sci. 77 (8): 1166–75. PMID 9706084.
  87. ^ Müller H, Johne R (2007). "Rotaviruses: diversity and zoonotic potential—a brief review". Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 120 (3–4): 108–12. PMID 17416132.
  88. ^ Cook N, Bridger J, Kendall K, Gomara MI, El-Attar L, Gray J (2004). "The zoonotic potential of rotavirus". J. Infect. 48 (4): 289–302. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2004.01.018. PMID 15066329.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Colin/Rotaviral_enteritis&oldid=277478963"