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Austrian-Prussian rivalry denotes the conflict between Austria and Prussia over dominance over the German states, a conflict which reached a high point with the Seven Years' War.

It reached a further high point with the wars of German unification of 1864-1871. After Austria and Prussia had cooperated in putting an end to Danish efforts to annex the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg in the Second Schleswig War; disagreements over the leadership of the German Confederation led to federal military action against Prussia, and to the Austro-Prussian war. The war was triggered by a dispute over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein after the termination of the Second Schleswig War.

Austro-Prussian rivalry was marked by systemic/fundamental and at the time virtually irreconcilable differences (?), that were consolidated in the respective states. Ultimately, after its victory over Austria in 1866, Prussia was able to push through the Lesser German solution, which meant the unification of the German states without Austria. The German Confederation that had existed since 1815 was dissolved after the 1866 Peace of Prague. The Austrians' preferred Greater German solution appeared too dangerous to many of Europe's politicians, seeing as it would have threatened the balance of power and status quo. In the course of the reorganisation of European alliance systems at the 1878 Berlin Congress, the Austro-Prussian rivalry was finally resolved/overcome with the Dual Alliance.

Differences between Austria and Prussia

State

Whereas the Prussian Kingdom was a rather artificial creation (state), which had resulted from the fusion of the Electorate of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia, Austria was a traditional dynastic power (?) of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been ruled by the Habsburgs since the 13th century.

In the 1860s, as the Industrial Revolution spread across Europe, Austria was unable to keep pace economically with the other great powers, Great Britain and France, and was even overtaken by the other German states in terms of percentage of world industrial production. The Austrian level of industrialisation rose more slowly than in other European great powers except Russia. The reasons for this are partly Austria's conservative policies i.e. restoration, partly a lack of national cohesion and partly Austria's geography.

Military

In military terms, the Prussian state was ahead of the Austrian. In Prussia, since the Prussian army reforms a modern conscript army existed, whose officers were promoted according to personal merit, and who could be of non-aristocratic origin; a common saying was that other states had a military, but in Prussia the military had a state. In Austria on the other hand, the Habsburg military forces were strongly controlled by the aristocracy, which filled the officers' ranks not according to personal achievement, but by seniority in service.

The militaries, particularly their equipment and weaponry, were also affected by the fact that Prussia industrialised earlier and more rapidly than Austria. The Prussian army's structure was another advantage: Conscription was for 3 years, after which one had to serve 4 years in the reserve. It was thus that Prussia could mobilise 7 year groups, and could make up for its disadvantage in having a smaller population. There was also a higher emphasis on quality than on quantity, in that a Prussian private was generally well-equipped and well-trained. In addition, the Prussian General Staff examined past mistakes and took corrective action.

Man kann die Unterschiede zwischen Preußen und Österreich auch hören - in den „Preußischen und österreichischen Märschen“ mit Herbert von Karajan und den Bläsern der Berliner Philharmonik.

State philosophy

Faith was another dividing factor. The Protestant, enlightened Prussia may be contrasted with the Catholic and feudal Austria. Obedience and discipline were more highly valued in the Prussian army than faith, which in turn was highly important in Austria.

Austria was ruled by Joseph II in accordance with enlightened absolutism: "Everything for the people but nothing through the people". Prussia on the other hand was a constitutional state, in which the legal framework, the form of government and the form of administration were firmly prescribed (?). Another difference was that Prussia concentrated more on inner German matters, whilst Austria expanded towards the south-east as the Ottoman Empire grew increasingly weak; ultimately, after the Austrian defeat in the 1866 war against Prussia, in the following year it was forced to negotiate with Hungary. In this newly-formed multi-national state, conflicts and crises were pre-ordained, as there were often tensions between the Germans, Slavs, Hungarians and various other nationalities within its borders.

History 1740-1866

Background to the rivalry

After Emperor Charles VI died on 20 October 1740, without a male heir in the Habsburg family, Maria Theresa inherited the rule of the Habsburg territories according to the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. However, not all European rulers recognised the Pragmatic Sanction, including Frederick II of Prussia. In return for his recognition he demanded Silesia from Austria, on the basis of old treaties. On 11 December 1740 he laid down an ultimatum to this effect.

Silesian Wars 1740–1742 and 1744/1745

Without waiting for a reply, on 16 December 1740 he marched into Silesia, thereby triggering the War of the Austrian Succession, as other European states also claimed the Habsburg territories. The Austrians could not prevent Frederick II from taking Silesia, and after the defeat at the Battle of Chotusitz were forced to make peace with Prussia (...). It therefore concluded the Treaty of Breslau and the Treaty of Berlin (1742), in which Ober- and Niederschlesien and the County of Kladsko were awarded to Prussia, which in turn took over Silesia's debts.

After Austria lost the imperial throne to the Bavarian Prince-Elector Charles VII in 1742, Austria occupied Bavaria and allied with Britain. Frederick II now feared that Austria might reclaim Silesia from Prussia.

For this reason in August 1744 he invaded Bohemia (Second Schleswig War), where he met with little success, and then retreated to Silesia. He was still able to defend Silesia against the Austrians. Austria therefore concluded the Treaty of Dresden in 1745, which once again affirmed Prussia's new acquisitions from the Treaty of Berlin. Frederick II in return recognised Franz Stephan, the husband of Maria Theresa, as the Holy Roman Emperor, after Charles VII had died.

From the Silesian to the Seven Years' War 1745–1763

After the Treaty of Dresden Prussia was no longer a participant in the War of the Austrian Succession, which only ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in which the European powers recognised the Pragmatic Sanction and Maria Theresa as heiress to the throne. The peace treaty once again confirmed Prussia's retention of Silesia. After 1748 Maria Theresa enacted reforms in Austria, but not Hungary, to improve the state machinery, strengthen the military, with a view to regaining Silesia. In foreign politics, guided by Chancellor Kaunitz, she attempted to isolate Prussia, by concluding alliances with Russia and France (see Diplomatic Revolution). After the reforms had proved effective, she prepared the Austrian army for an invasion of Prussia. (Seven Years' War).

After Frederick II had learned via his spies of the Austro-Russo-Franco-Saxonian alliance, he faced the problem of a war on several fronts. To prevent this, he concluded an alliance with England (Treaty of Westminster (1756)), and without declaring war, on 29 August 1756 invaded Saxony. He planned to gain a fast victory over and to occupy Saxony, due to its importance to Prussia in economic and military terms. After a victory over Saxony, he wanted to rapidly occupy Prague, to permanently station troops in enemy territory. He thus wanted to force Austria into peace negotiations, and expected that after such a peace treaty, Russia would not dare to fight Prussia alone.

Although he succeeded in defeating Saxony, the Austrians moved more rapidly than expected and thus his plan for a rapid victory failed. In 1757 he once again attempted to occupy Prague, but failed. As a consequence the Prussian situation grew ever more critical, so that by 1760 Prussia's military forces were exhausted, and key territories (East Prussia, Saxony, Silesia) were now in enemies' hands. He had to attempt to preserve Prussia. The rescue (?) only came when his opponents became disunited (see Miracle of the House of Brandenburg), and failed to capitalise on their victories over Prussia. The final ??? came when Empress Elizabeth died in 1762 in St. Petersburg and her successor Peter III made peace with Prussia. Due to this, Austria, which had already exhausted its military and economic energies, was forced to conclude peace with Prussia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg was signed, in which Prussia was permanently guaranteed ownership of Upper and Lower and Silesia, and the County of Kladsko. From then onwards, Prussia was the fifth European great power.

From the Seven Years' War to the War of the Bavarian Succession 1763–1780

In the Treaty of Hubertusburg, Austria had permanently lost Silesia to Prussia. In return, Frederick II had pledged himself to support Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II, in imperial elections, which he did in 1764. After this there were no further military conflicts, but Frederick II attempted to weaken the Emperor, the Empire and Austria.

A new situation emerged when Prussia and Russia planned the First Partition of Poland. To gain Austria's consent, Prussia offered them a part of Poland as well. At the Partition in 1772, Austria received Galicia, Russia received Polish Livonia and the Belarussian Voivodeships, and Prussia all Prussian territories which until then had been under Polish rule. From then Frederick II styled himself "King of Prussia" and no longer "King in Prussia". After the Partition, the Austro-Prussian tensions could still not be contained, but it did not come to armed conflict.

This changed when in 1777 the Bavarian line of the House of Wittelsbach died out, and Charles Theodore, from the Palatinate line, was to inherit the Electorate of Bavaria. But Emperor Joseph II intervened, seeing in Bavaria a suitable place to expand his territories after the loss of Silesia and to improve his position in the Empire. Charles Theodore caved in to Austrian pressure and ceded Lower Bavaria and the Upper Palatinate, in return for which he was to receive Further Austria. But this met with opposition from the other members of he Empire, including Prussia. Therefore Frederick II sent his troops into Bohemia, but due to logistical problems no major battle occurred. France and Russia thereafter mediated and negotiated the Treaty of Teschen, in which Emperor Joseph II recognised the agreements of the Wittelsbachers, and received the Innviertel region from Bavaria.

From the War of the Bavarian Succession to the Coalition Wars 1780–1812

Despite the Treaty, tensions did not abate, but continued without military clashes. Tensions flared up again when in 1785 Austria planned to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian Netherlands. As a consequence, the Protestant Fürstenbund ("league of princes") formed under Prussian leadership against Austria.

In 1786 Frederick II of Prussia died. Thereupon Austria and Russia began a new campaign against the Turks, in which they attempted to force the weakened Ottoman Empire out of Europe and divide the conquered territories among themselves. This would have meant a massive power shift in favour of Austria and Russia within Europe, which the new Prussian King Frederick William II would not accept. Therefore he assembled in 1790 the Prussian army in Silesia, to lead them into Austria.

But the King, after a short while, put a stop to this himself, as it was too expensive. Influenced by the French Revolution in 1789, and urged on by the English, the new Emperor Leopold II and Frederick William II of Prussia tried to put aside the Austro-Prussian rivalry, which resulted in the Reichenbach Convention of 1790. Austria ended the campaign against the Turks, and Prussia ended its expansion eastwards.

In 1791 Austria and Prussia allied in the Declaration of Pillnitz and declared complete solidarity with the French king. The French National Convention then on 20 April 1792 declared war on Austria and Prussia (War of the First Coalition). The two powers, due to antiquated military organisations and a lack of the will to fight, did not manage to score any large victories. Prussia in 1795 concluded the Peace of Basel, and Austria in 1797 concluded the Peace of Campo Formio, in which they both ceded the territories west of the Rhine to France, and in return received compensation.

After the War of the Second Coalition (1799-1801), which Austria but not Prussia took part in, the Holy Roman Empire as a whole made peace with France (Treaty of Lunéville), and consented to the cession of all of the Empire's territories west of the Rhine, and the affected rulers would be compensated. This occurred through the German Mediatisation of 1803. Thus the Emperor was deprived of the most important mainstay of his power, and the dissolution of the Empire was only a question of time. To counter the loss of status and to remain an Emperor, Francis II proclaimed the Austrian Empire on 11 August 1804.

Thereafter the two great German powers waged wars against France independent of one another, Austria in 1805 (War of the Third Coalition, ending in Austrian defeat and in 1806 an end of the old Empire), Prussia in 1806-1807 (War of the Fourth Coalition, resulting in Prussian defeat and loss of great power status) and Austria in 1809 (War of the Fifth Coalition, resulting in Austrian defeat). Both were forced to conclude military alliances with France, Austria in 1809 (Treaty of Schönbrunn and Prussia in 1807 (Treaty of Tilsit), which forced them to fight against Russia in 1812.

Wars of Liberation and Vienna Congress 1813–1815

After the French defeat in Russia, Austria and Prussia ended their alliance with France and allied with Russia. Together they freed Germany from Napoleon. At the Battle of Leipzig in autumn 1813, the Allies were victorious and forced Napoleon to retreat beyond the Rhine. In March 1814 they marched into Paris and forced Napoleon to abdicate. Napoleon returned in 1815 and for a short while took over power again, threatening a resumption of hostilities. In the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was finally defeated and banished to St. Helena.

At the Vienna Congress, the territories of Austria and Prussia were restored as much as possible to their state of 1789. Austria lost Further Austria and the Austrian Netherlands, but gained the large Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, whose king was in personal union, Emperor of Austria. A hard loss for Prussia was that of the territories from the Third Partition of Poland, for which they only received Posen and various territories on the Rhine as a buffer against France, but also had to cede all territories that did not come with the main territory because of the principle of state integrity/cohesion, including some parts of Southern Germany, but gained the Province of Saxony. In the place of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Confederation was established, a defensive alliance of all German states, with Austria as the sole presiding power.

From the Vienna Congress to the March Revolutions 1815–1849

After the Vienna Congress, a period of restoration started in Germany (Vormärz), heavily influenced by the Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, who had also played a key role at the Vienna Congress. At his instigation, the liberal and nationalist movements were suppressed, the rulers governed in an absolutist manner, in 1819 the Carlsbad Decrees were introduced, and a central investigative commission was established in Mainz to persecute liberals. For Austria, this had negative long-term consequences: through the conservative and restorative policies, Austria fell behind the other powers socially, politically, militarily and economically. These grievances would within time trigger a revolution.

In March 1848, these conditions moved the people to the barricades, and revolution broke out. This had various reasons: the desire for a nation-state, the suppression of the liberals and nationalists, and the social question, which had arisen due to the Industrial Revolution, which was accelerated by the establishment in 1834 of the German Customs Union (Zollverein). In the major German cities it came to fights on the barricades, the rulers were forces to appoint liberal governments; in Vienna, Chancellor Metternich had to resign, in Berlin Frederick William IV had to consent to the election of a parliament and the drafting of a constitution, in Munich, the king of Bavaria had to abdicate.

For the first time an all-German parliament was elected which sat in St. Paul's Church, Frankfurt. It drafted a constitution for Germany, which due to the counter-revolution in summer of 1948 in Austria was never enacted and failed on the rejection by Austria and Bavaria. The Prussian king also would not accept the title of German Emperor.