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User:EEmenike/Prairie Restoration

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Prairie restoration is a conservation effort to restore prairie lands that were destroyed due to industrial, agricultural, commercial, or residential development.[1] The primary aim is to return areas and ecosystems to their previous state before their depletion.[2]

In the US, after the Black Hawk War had subsided in the mid-1830s, settlers from northern Europe and north east of the United States made a home for themselves.[3] They plowed up the tallgrasses and wild flowers in the area. By 1849 most specie of prairie grass had disappeared to make room for crops (i.e.: soybeans, corn, etc.).[3][4] Restored prairies and the grasses that survived the 1800 plowing represent only a fragment of the abundant verdure that once covered he midsection of North America from western Ohio to the Rockies and from southern Canada to Texas.[3] As an example, the U.S. state of Illinois alone once held over 35,000 square miles (91,000 km2) of prairie land and now just 3 square miles (7.8 km2) of that original prairie land is left. The over farming of this land as well as periods of drought and its exposure to the elements (no longer bound together by the tall grasses) was responsible for the Dust Bowls in the 1930s.

Issues of erosion, and dwindling biodiversity have arisen in areas once populated by prairie grass species. So in efforts of restoration, in Europe, when restoring previous crop land with prairie grasses, the most frequently used techniques involve: spontaneous succession, sowing seed mixtures, transfer of plant material, topsoil removal and transfer. When maintaining these tall grasses, prescribed fire is a popular method.[5] It encourages taller and stronger regrowth as well as the recycling of nutrients in the soil.[6]

Although not fully able to restore the full diversity of an area, restoration efforts aid the thriving of the natural ecosystems. This is further improved by the specific reintroduction of key organisms from the native plants microbiome.[7] Prairie soil also effectively stores carbon. As carbon sinks, they work as a vital regulator of carbon in the atmosphere through carbon sequestration (withdrawal), and the carbon benefits the sustenance of diverse species in the prairie ecosystem.[8]

Article body[edit]

Purpose[edit]

Erosion[edit]

Erosion occurs when surface pressures wear away the material of the Earth’s crust.[9] Particularly with land previously dominated by prairie grasses, the loss of the tallgrass extensive fibrous root system left the soil exposed and unbound.[10] Ecologically, prairie restoration aids in conservation of earth's topsoil, which is often exposed to erosion from wind and rain (worsened by climate change's heavier and frequent rain) when prairies are plowed under to make way for new commerce.[11][12] Conversely, much more of the prairie lands have become the fertile fields on which cereal crops of corn, barley and wheat are grown.[13] Continued erosion reduces the long term productivity of the soil.[14]

Prairie restoration reintroduces this root system that once again binds the soil, strengthening it against water erosion through adequate water filtration.[9]

Carbon Collection[edit]

Prairie soil is also useful for carbon sequestration.[15] Carbon dioxide is a heat trapping gas, and 40% of it is produced by humans and remains in the atmosphere thus worsening the effects of global warming.[16] Prairie grass collects this carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and stores it in its soil.[17][18] When left undisturbed, the prairie soil acts as a Carbon sink, meaning it absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.[16][17]

Other Purposes

Many prairie plants are also highly resistant to drought, temperature extremes, disease, and native insect pests.[19] They are frequently used for xeriscaping projects in arid regions of the American West.[20]

A restoration project of prairie lands can be large or small.[21] A backyard prairie restoration will enrich soil, help with erosion and take up extra water in excessive rainfalls.[22] Prairie flowers are attractive to native butterflies and other pollinators.[21] On a larger scale, communities and corporations are creating areas of restored prairies which in turn will store organic carbon in the soil and help maintain the biodiversity of the 3000 plus species that count on the grasslands for food and shelter.[23][24]

Types of plants[edit]

Some prominent tallgrass prairie grasses include big bluestem, indiangrass, and switchgrass. Midgrass and shortgrass species include little bluestem, side oats grama, and buffalograss. Many of the diverse prairie forbs (herbaceous, non-graminoid flowering plants) are structurally specialized to resist herbaceous grazers such as American bison. Some have hairy leaves that may help deter the cold and prevent excessive evaporation. Many of forbs contain secondary compounds that were discovered by indigenous peoples and are still used widely today. For example, purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea or just Echinacea) is used as an herbal remedy for colds.

Early prairie restoration efforts tended to focus largely on a few dominant species, typically grasses, with little attention to seed source. With experience, later restorers have realized the importance of obtaining a broad mix of species and using local ecotype seed.


Planting and Aftercare of Prairie Grasses[edit]

In Europe, when restoring previous crop land with prairie grasses, the most frequently used techniques involve: spontaneous succession, sowing seed mixtures, transfer of plant material, topsoil removal and transfer.[25] Spontaneous succession is an effective technique when quick results are not expected and where there is high availability of propagules.[25] Sowing mixtures can be low or high diversity, referring to the variety of seeds. Low diversity mixtures are great for restoring large areas in a short amount of time.[25] High diversity mixtures (because of their cost and success rate) are used for smaller areas.[25] A mixture of large low diversity areas and small high diversity areas are good rich source patches for the spontaneous colonization of neighboring areas.[25] This allows for the possibility of continued natural restoration.[25]

Fire is a big component to the success of grasslands, large or small as it is a fire dependent ecosystem.[26] Controlled burns, with a permit, are recommended every 4–8 years (after two growth seasons) to burn away dead plants; prevent certain other plants from encroaching (such as trees) and release and recycling nutrients into the ground to encourage new growth.[6][5] A much more wildlife habitat friendly alternative to burning every 4–8 years is to burn 1/4 to 1/8 of a tract every year.[27][28] This will leave wildlife a home every year and still accomplish the task of burning. The Native Americans may also have used the burns to control pests such as ticks.[29] These prescribed burn motivate grasses to grow taller, produce more seed, and flower more abundantly.[5] If controlled burns are not possible, rotational mowing is recommended as a substitute.[30]

One of the newer methods available is holistic management, which uses livestock as a substitute for the keystone species such as bison.[31] This allows the rotational mowing to be done by animals which in turn mimics nature more closely.[32] Holistic management also can use fire as a tool, but in a more limited way and in combination with the mowing done by animals.[31][32]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Restoration | Minnesota DNR". www.dnr.state.mn.us. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  2. ^ Allison, Stuart K. (2004). "What "Do" We Mean When We Talk About Ecological Restoration?". Ecological Restoration. 22 (4): 281–286. ISSN 1543-4060.
  3. ^ a b c "Gale - Product Login". galeapps.gale.com. Retrieved 2023-03-07.
  4. ^ Faragher, John Mack (1986-01-01). Sugar Creek: Life on the Illinois Prairie. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-04263-4.
  5. ^ a b c Bailey, Pamela; Marin, Chester O (February 2007). "Overview of Prairie Planting Techniques and Maintenance Requirements". ERDC Knowledge Core. Retrieved 13 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ a b Collins, Scott L.; Wallace, Linda L. (1990). Fire in North American Tallgrass Prairies. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2315-8.
  7. ^ Koziol, Liz; Crews, Timothy E.; Bever, James D. (26 February 2020). "Native plant abundance, diversity, and richness increases in prairie restoration with field inoculation density of native mycorrhizal amendments". Restoration Ecology. 28 (S4). doi:10.1111/rec.13151. ISSN 1061-2971.
  8. ^ DeLuca, Thomas H; Zabinski, Catherine A (15 March 2011). "Prairie ecosystems and the carbon problem". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9 (7): 407–413. doi:10.1890/100063. ISSN 1540-9295.
  9. ^ a b Joost, Richard E. (2015-10-26), Fribourg, H.A.; Hannaway, D.B.; West, C.P. (eds.), "Conservation: Erosion Control, Soil Management and Remediation, and Effects on Wildlife Habitat", Agronomy Monographs, Madison, WI, USA: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America, pp. 489–507, doi:10.2134/agronmonogr53.c28, ISBN 978-0-89118-185-9, retrieved 2023-03-14
  10. ^ "The revery alone won't do: Restoring America's prairies". Earth.com. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  11. ^ "Prairie restoration : definition of Prairie restoration and synonyms of Prairie restoration (English)". dictionary.sensagent.com. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  12. ^ Li, Zhiying; Fang, Haiyan (2016-12-01). "Impacts of climate change on water erosion: A review". Earth-Science Reviews. 163: 94–117. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.004. ISSN 0012-8252.
  13. ^ Weaver, J. E. (1927). "Some Ecological Aspects of Agriculture in the Prairie". Ecology. 8 (1): 1–17. doi:10.2307/1929382. ISSN 0012-9658.
  14. ^ "AGR-102 EROSION - ITS EFFECT ON SOIL PROPERTIES, PRODUCTIVITY AND PROFIT". www2.ca.uky.edu. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  15. ^ Purakayastha, T. J.; Huggins, D. R.; Smith, J. L. (1 March 2008). "Carbon Sequestration in Native Prairie, Perennial Grass, No-Till, and Cultivated Palouse Silt Loam". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 72 (2): 534–540. doi:10.2136/sssaj2005.0369.
  16. ^ a b Lal, Rattan (2008-02-27). "Carbon sequestration". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1492): 815–830. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2185. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 2610111. PMID 17761468.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  17. ^ a b Anonymous (2019-09-20). "What is Carbon Sequestration and How Does it Work?". CLEAR Center. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  18. ^ Team, Grassroots (2021-06-11). "How Soil Carbon Storage Works". Grassroots Carbon. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  19. ^ "Native Praries are resilient". Texas Community Watershed Partners. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  20. ^ Sagers, Larry A (2005). Waterwise Gardening and Landscaping.
  21. ^ a b Harmon-Threatt, Alexandra; Chin (Kristen). "Common Methods for Tallgrass Prairie Restoration and Their Potential Effects on Bee Diversity". BioOne Complete. Retrieved 13 March 2023. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  22. ^ Brye, Kristofor R; Cordes, Faith; McKee, Marya (January 2020). "Prairie Restoration Effects on Near-Surface Soil Nutrient Changes Over Time in the Ozark Highlands Region of Northwest Arkansas". Research Gate. Retrieved 13 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ Blvd, Mailing Address: 111 E. Kellogg; Paul, Suite 105 Saint; Us, MN 55101 Phone: 651-293-0200 This is the general phone line at the Mississippi River Visitor Center Contact. "Prairie Restoration - Mississippi National River & Recreation Area (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-03-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Tölgyesi, Csaba; Vadász, Csaba; Kun, Róbert; István Csathó, András; Bátori, Zoltán; Hábenczyus, Alida; Erdős, László; Török, Péter (January 2022). "Post‐restoration grassland management overrides the effects of restoration methods in propagule‐rich landscapes". PubMed Central. Retrieved 13 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ^ a b c d e f Török, Péter; Vida, Enikő; Deák, Balázs; Lengyel, Szabolcs; Tóthmérész, Béla (October 2011). "Grassland restoration on former croplands in Europe: an assessment of applicability of techniques and costs". Biodiversity and Conservation. 20 (11): 2311–2332. doi:10.1007/s10531-011-9992-4. ISSN 0960-3115.
  26. ^ Main, Martin B.; Barry, Michael J. (2002-06-01). "Influence of season of fire on flowering of wet prairie grasses in south Florida, USA". Wetlands. 22 (2): 430–434. doi:10.1672/0277-5212(2002)022[0430:IOSOFO]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1943-6246.
  27. ^ "burn". The Prairie Ecologist. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  28. ^ Roberts, Shelby (2022-04-01). "Spring prairie burns: why they're important and when to do them". scottswcd. Retrieved 2023-03-14.
  29. ^ Wray, Jacilee; Anderson, M. Kat (2003). "Restoring Indian-Set Fires to Prairie Ecosystems on the Olympic Peninsula". Ecological Restoration. 21 (4): 296–301. ISSN 1543-4060.
  30. ^ Kemmerling, Lindsey R.; Rutkoski, Corinn E.; Evans, Sarah E.; Helms, Jackson A.; Cordova-Ortiz, Esbeiry S.; Smith, Jamie D.; Vázquez Custodio, Jorge A.; Vizza, Carmella; Haddad, Nick M. (2022). "Prairie Strips and Lower Land Use Intensity Increase Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 10. doi:10.3389/fevo.2022.833170/full. ISSN 2296-701X.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  31. ^ a b Carter, John; Jones, Allison; O’Brien, Mary; Ratner, Jonathan; Wuerthner, George (2014-04-23). "Holistic Management: Misinformation on the Science of Grazed Ecosystems". International Journal of Biodiversity. 2014: e163431. doi:10.1155/2014/163431. ISSN 2314-4149.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  32. ^ a b Zhao, Tianqi; Iwaasa, Alan D. (2022-01-11). "Rotational grazing increases purple prairie clover frequency in the rangeland plant communities under semi-arid environment". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. doi:10.1139/cjps-2021-0141.
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