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Frankfurt

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Immigration

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Frankfurt has a large migrant population and has been a leading immigration destination in Europe for a number of years. Its position as a global city makes it a desirable place to immigrate to.[1] The city's migrant population comes from diverse ethnic background. Over 170 nations are represented in Frankfurt.[2] The largest ethnic group are of Turkish background. Of the total residents in Frankfurt, 21.1% do not have German citizenship. Of these people, 19.4% are Turkish without German citizenship.[3] Other large immigrant populations originate from Croatia, Italy, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Spain, Greece, Morocco, Bosnia, India, France, Portugal, China, and Afghanistan. In 2013, non-German citizens accounted for about 26 percent of the total population. [4]

The Frankfurt municipality developed Terminology to distinguish an individuals ethnic background. It was created in order to accurately capture and describe recent migration trends. An individual with foreign heritage is most widely described as having a "migration background." Another statistical method is to distinguish between residents who have German citizenship and those without German citizenship. [5]

History

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The large influx of immigrants to Frankfurt began in the years preceding World War II. After the war, the Federal Republic of Germany's economy experienced rapid economic growth. This period is known as the Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle).[6] Industrial production in West Germany tripled and unemployment dropped from 9 to 1 percent during the Wirtschaftswunder. Due to the increase in production, the economy suffered a labor shortage. To fill the growing demand for labor, the German government signed recruitment agreements with numerous countries. The first was the German-Italian Recruitment Agreement which was signed on December 20th, 1955.[7] Over the next decade, Germany signed similar worker agreements with Greece and Spain, Turkey, Morocco, Portugal, Tunisia, and Yugoslavia.[8]These agreements allowed foreign workers to work in Germany's industrial sector as gastarbeiters (guest workers). It is estimated that 2.1 million people came to Germany as guest workers by 1977, making up 12 percent of the Federal Republic of Germany workforce.[9] Frankfurt brought in many migrant workers under the program. By 1970, 90,000 guest workers resided in Frankfurt which made up 13 percent of Frankfurt's total population.[10]

The intention was that the guest workers would stay temporarily and return to their country of origin when the economy slowed.[11] In 1973, West Germany officially ended the recruitment of guest workers. However, immigration to Frankfurt continued.[10] Many migrants chose to stay in Frankfurt and were able to bring their families to join them by right of family reunification.[7] These initial migrant groups formed local communities in Frankfurt. This encouraged further immigration of migrants by establishing cultural commonality.[10]

Integration Programs

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Frankfurt was the first German city to actively develop integration programs.[12] In 1989, the Frankfurt municipal administration founded the Office of Multicultural Affairs (Amt für multikulturelle Angelegenheiten, AMKA). AMKA was established in order to support successful integration of Frankfurt residents.[13] It is responsible for developing and managing language education programs, enforcing anti-discrimination policies, holding community events, and other initiatives. Since its establishment, AMKA has launched a number of notable initiatives within Frankfurt. In 2003, AMKA issued the Anti-Discrimination Guidelines (Antidiskriminierungsrichtlinie, ADR. The ADR was created to protect workers against discrimination.[14] Diversity Drives Frankfurt (Vielfalt Bewegt Frankfurt), a campaign created in 2010, serves as an integration educational resource for Frankfurt residents.[5]


Amsterdam

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Economy

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The Amsterdam Stock Exchange, the oldest stock exchange in the world.
The Zuidas, the city's main business district.

Amsterdam has been the leading financial center of the Netherlands for the last few centuries.[15] Its continual success as a leading financial hub originates, in part, from the historical contributions it made to finance. During the Dutch Golden Age, Amsterdam made many innovations in finance.[16] The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), now part of Euronext, was established in 1602. It is the world's oldest and Europe's largest stock exchange.[17] Similarly, in 1609, they established the Bank of Amsterdam (Dutch: Amsterdamsche Wisselbank) which was the first exchange bank in Northern Europe[18]. The modern central banking system is largely influenced by the Wisslebank.[19]

Amsterdam is ranked the fifth best European city to locate an international business, surpassed by London, Paris, Frankfurt and Barcelona.[20]

Many large corporations and banks have their headquarters in Amsterdam, including AkzoNobel, Heineken International, ING Group, ABN AMRO, TomTom, Delta Lloyd Group, Booking.com and Philips. KPMG International's global headquarters is located in nearby Amstelveen, where many non-Dutch companies have settled as well, because surrounding communities allow full land ownership, contrary to Amsterdam's land-lease system.Though many small offices are still located on the old canals, companies are increasingly relocating outside the city centre.

The Zuidas (English: South Axis) has grown to become the new financial and legal hub.[21] The growth of the Zuidas is a product of the the urban renewal structure plan, Kiezen voor stedelijkheid (English: “Opting for Urbanity”)[22] The five largest law firms of the Netherlands, a number of Dutch subsidiaries of large consulting firms like Boston Consulting Group and Accenture, and the World Trade Center Amsterdam are located in Zuidas.

There are three other smaller financial districts in Amsterdam. The first is the area surrounding Amsterdam Sloterdijk railway station, where several newspapers like De Telegraaf have their offices.Also, Deloitte, the Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (municipal public transport company) and the Dutch tax offices (Belastingdienst) are located there.The second Financial District is the area surrounding the Johan Cruyff Arena. The third is the area surrounding Amsterdam Amstel railway station. The tallest building in Amsterdam, the Rembrandt Tower, is situated there, as is the headquarters of Philips.[23][24]

Port of Amsterdam

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The Port of Amsterdam is the second largest port in the Netherlands in terms of transshipment and the fourth largest port in Europe. To accommodate the large volume of shipments, the port utilizes a network of waterways, ship canals, and sea locks to connect Amsterdam to international trade routes.[25] The North sea is accessible through the North Sea Canal and the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal allows passage inland.[26] Improvements and expansion of this network are carried out frequently in order to create more efficient trade routes and greater trade capacity. Construction of a new sea lock at the mouth of the North Sea Canal began in 2016. The new sea lock, named the IJmuiden Sea Lock, will be completed in 2022. The lock will replace the North Canal lock which will soon be unable to accommodate larger sea vessels.[27] The North Canal lock was the largest canal lock when it was completed in 1929.[28]


Verona

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Roads

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Verona is connected to the national road system via the controlled-access highway called the Autostrade. The Autostrada A4 and the Autostrada A22 are the main motorways that give access to smaller road classes. The Autostarda A4 allows access to Verona from the North or South. Access to Verona from the East or West is given by the Autostrada A4[29].

The primary mode of transportation in Verona is private transportation. Private transportation makes up 58 percent of road usage. Pedestrian traffic accounts for 20 percent of road use.[30] In 2017, the number of registered cars in Verona was 29,174. Between 2014 and 2017, B-Segment (also called subcompact car in North America) were reported to be the most common.[31]

The City of Verona has partnered with public and private companies over the years to address the cities growing infrastructure demands. These partnerships have aimed to reduce many of the negative extranalities that have arisen due to increase in traffic. Such extranalities inclue noise and air polution as well as traffic congestion.[32]

References

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  1. ^ Fenzel, Birgit. “Frankfurt - Networking Cultural Diversity.” Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 10 Aug. 2010, www.mpg.de/807681/Networking_diversity.
  2. ^ “Diversity Moves Frankfurt.” Cities of Migration, 13 Dec. 2011, citiesofmigration.ca/good_idea/diversity-moves-frankfurt/.
  3. ^ Sü, Rig, Inken, & Wilmes, Maren. (2015). The Integration of the Second Generation in Germany: Results of the TIES Survey on the Descendants of Turkish and Yugoslavian Immigrants. Amsterdam University Press.
  4. ^ "Statistisches Jahrbuch Frankfurt am Main 2009" (PDF).
  5. ^ a b Cagney, Joanna. “Network Diversity and the Development of the 'Frankfurt Model': Institutional Responses to Multiculturalism in the Work of the Amt Für Multikulturelle Angelegenheiten.” Royal Halloway University of London, 2016.
  6. ^ Stokes, R. (1991). Technology and the West German "Wirtschaftswunder". Technology and Culture, 32(1), 1.
  7. ^ a b Triadafilopoulos, Triadafilos, and Karen Schonwalder. "How the federal republic became an immigration country: norms, politics and the failure of West Germany's guest worker system." German Politics and Society, vol. 24, no. 3, 2006, p. 1+. General OneFile, http://link.galegroup.com.proxy.lib.pdx.edu/apps/doc/A160417521/ITOF?u=s1185784&sid=ITOF&xid=208f03ba. Accessed 30 Nov. 2018.
  8. ^ Hansen, R. (2003), Migration to Europe since 1945: Its History and its Lessons. The Political Quarterly, 74: 25-38.
  9. ^ Rist, Ray C. “Migration and Marginality: Guestworkers in Germany and France.” Daedalus, vol. 108, no. 2, 1979, pp. 95–108. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20024610.
  10. ^ a b c Espahangizi, Raika. (2014). Migration and urban transformations: Frankfurt in the 1960s and 1970s.(Migrant Political Activism)(Essay). Journal of Contemporary History, 49(1), 183-208.
  11. ^ Castles, Stephen. “The Guest-Worker in Western Europe - An Obituary.” The International Migration Review, vol. 20, no. 4, 1986, pp. 761–778. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2545735.
  12. ^ Eckardt, F. (2007). Multiculturalism in Germany: From Ideology to Pragmatism—and Back? National Identities, 9(3), 235-245.
  13. ^ Friedmann, J. (1995). Migrants, civil society and the New Europe: The challenge for planners. European Planning Studies, 3(3), 275-285.
  14. ^ “Office for Multicultural Affairs - AmkA.” Frankfurt , City of Frankfurt Am Main, www.frankfurt.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=7017&_ffmpar%5B_id_inhalt%5D=7846492.
  15. ^ M. van Geenhuizen. (2002). Amsterdam as a changing node in financial services. Geographica Helvetica, 56(3), 193-201.
  16. ^ Carlos, A., & Neal, L. (2011). Amsterdam and London as financial centers in the eighteenth century. Financial History Review, 18(1), 21-46. doi:10.1017/S0968565010000338
  17. ^ Amsterdam in the 17th century Archived 26 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine, The University of North Carolina at Pembroke
  18. ^ Quinn, Stephen; Roberds, William (2005). The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta (Working Paper 2005–16)
  19. ^ Liu, Henry C.K. (8 November 2002). "Global Economy, Banking Bunkum, Part 2: The European Experience". Asia Times. Retrieved 20 December 2014.
  20. ^ "European Cities Monitor 2007" (in Dutch). I Amsterdam. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
  21. ^ "Zuidas" (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 24 December 2007. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  22. ^ Jantzen, C. & Vetner, M. Know Techn Pol (2008) 21: 149.
  23. ^ "Rembrandt Tower". Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  24. ^ "Philips" (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
  25. ^ Knap, G. (1970). Port of Amsterdam. Amsterdam: De Bussy.
  26. ^ “Port of Amsterdam.” Ship Technology, Verdict Media Limited, www.ship-technology.com/projects/port-of-amsterdam/.
  27. ^ “New Large Sea Lock.” Port of Amsterdam, Port of Amsterdam, 24 Oct. 2018, www.portofamsterdam.com/en/port-amsterdam/new-large-sea-lock.
  28. ^ "Biggest Canal Lock Opened in Holland.' Popular Science Monthly, September 1930, p. 29.
  29. ^ “La Rete.” Autostrade per L'Italia, www.autostrade.it/it/la-nostra-rete.
  30. ^ “Verona.” CIVITAS, civitas.eu/content/verona.
  31. ^ UNRAE. "Number of Registered Cars in The Italian Province of Verona in Italy from 2013 to 2017." Statista - The Statistics Portal, Statista, www.statista.com/statistics/746616/number-of-registered-cars-in-the-province-of-verona-in-italy/
  32. ^ Lah, Oliver, et al. "Transferability of Sustainable Urban Transport Solutions." CODATU: Lyon, France (2015).
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