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[1]

Flooding

[edit]

<figure class="mw-default-size" data-ve-attributes="{"typeof":"mw:Image/Thumb"}"><img src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg/220px-Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg" width="220" height="165" resource="./File:Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station,_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" data-file-type="bitmap" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg/440px-Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg 2x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg/330px-Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station%2C_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg 1.5x" data-ve-attributes="{"resource":"./File:Rainfall_at_Copilco_Station,_Mexico_City_-_2.jpg"}" /><figcaption>Rainfall at Copilco Station, Mexico City, May 4 2017</figcaption></figure>

The Mexico Valley Basin has faced droughts, recurrent floods and other hydrological and climate-related hazards since pre-Hispanic and colonial times.[2] The hydrological cycle used to be in equilibrium; elevated mixed forests interacted with infiltration, evapotranspiration, and with the system of rivers, seasonal streams and lakes that acted as watersheds, or drainage basins, for precipitation runoff.[2] Very few natural drainage basins remain because many of the aquifer system streams and rivers have either dried up or been encased and converted into sewers.[2]

The city is located within a naturally enclosed hydrologic basin, thus, making it particularly vulnerable to floods.[3] The rainy season in the Mexico Valley Basin is characterized by high intensity storms of short duration.[3] The average annual rainfall is 800 mm (500 mm in the eastern part, and 1000 mm in the southern and western parts).[3] The collector of the Deep Sewerage was designed to carry about 200 m³/second over a 45 hour-period, however the fluctuations in the amounts that have to be drained create major operational and maintenance problems.[3]

The floods in the Mexico Valley Basin can be explained due to the difference in altitude between some parts of the city and the Great Canal, and the inability of the sewerage system to quickly pump out all the water during the rainy season.[3] 30 years ago, the Great Canal could discharge 90 m³/second; at present, it discharges only 12 m³/second because it has lost its gradient, and since the secondary sewerage network is insufficient to carry high volumes of stormwater and wastewater, the latter also floods some areas for short periods.[3] Additionally, a large portion of the rain generates surface runoff, posing a risk due to the high speed that it reaches running down the slopes.[4]

This situation results in chronic flooding, and poor neighborhoods located in hillsides are particularly affected,[5] resulting in populations affected by waterborne, diseases, suspension of electricity service and need for piped water supply.[2] A total of 668 floods have been recorded throughout the 1980-2000 period, for which a total of 2,771,284 people have needed immediate assistance (including evacuation and displacement).[2] Some of the municipalities that have registered the most floods have been Ecatepec (8.68%), Iztapalapa (7.93%) and Chalco (6.44%), although Tultitlan and Chimalhuacan have been the most affected in terms of people (36.09% and 32.7%, respectively).

Finalize your Wiki topic / Find your sources

I would, most of all, like to contribute to the article Water management in Greater Mexico City. I could:

  • Expand the water challenges sections:
    • Flooding
      • From:
        • Flooding is common in Mexico City, swamping highways and sidewalks. In low-lying neighborhoods such as Iztapalapa, residents are so accustomed to seeing a fetid sea of sewage rise in the streets that they have built miniature dikes in front of their homes. Flooding is caused both by the sinking together and increased soil impermeability due to urbanization. If the Emisor Central should fail during the rainy season, modelling shows that a major flood would occur that would inundate the historic center, the Mexico City International Airport and the eastern boroughs of Mexico City.
      • To:
        • The Mexico Valley Basin has faced droughts, recurrent floods and other hydrological and climate-related hazards since pre-Hispanic and colonial times.[6] The hydrological cycle used to be in equilibrium as elevated mixed forests interacted with rivers, infiltration, evapo-transpiration, and with the system of lakes, rivers and seasonal streams that acted as a natural drainage for precipitation runoff.[6] It now suffers from recurring floods because it is located in the basin floor, and many of the aquifer system streams and rivers have either dried up or been encased and converted into sewers.[6] Moreover, the poor functioning of the sewage system results in chronic flooding in poor neighborhoods located on the hillsides,[7] resulting in populations affected by waterborne, diseases, suspension of electricity service and need for piped water supply.[6] A total of 668 floods have been recorded throughout the 1980-2000 period, for which a total of 2,771,284 people have needed immediate assistance (including evacuation and displacement).[6] Some of the municipalities that have registered the most floods have been Ecatepec (8.68%), Iztapalapa (7.93%) and Chalco (6.44%), although Tultitlan and Chimalhuacan have been the most affected in terms of people (36.09% and 32.7%, respectively).[6]
    • Increasing urbanization
      • From:
        • Urban growth reduces the permeability of the soil in groundwater recharge areas and increases the risk of flooding. It is estimated that the metropolitan area grows annually by 200 to 300 hectares on recharge areas. With every square meter that is built up, on average 170 liters of annual recharge are lost. Thus, for every hectare built up, the water for 500 families are lost and the pressure on groundwater increases further. Between 1989 and 1994 the Federal District declared six Environmental Protection Zones, primarily in forests and mountain slopes, with a total area of almost 5,000 hectares, in order to protect them from urbanization.
      • To:
        • A total of 182 Federally Protected Natural Areas (NPA) have been declared throughout the country, to prevent urbanization; they cover 90,893,522 hectares,[8] additionally to state declared ones. Mexico City has a total of 23 NPAs and an Ecological Conservation Communitary Area, covering a total of 26,047 hectares,[9] and State of Mexico has a total of 88 NPAs, covering a total of 983,984 hectares.[10] Nevertheless, the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA) has grown constantly, both physically and demographically, since 1930's. It spreads over a surface of 4,250 km2 and has a metropolitan population of approximately 21.2 million, concentrating 18% of the country's population.[7] It covers over 16 boroughs of Mexico City and 34 municipalities of State of Mexico.[7]
        • Urban growth reduces the permeability of the soil in groundwater recharge areas and increases the risk of flooding. Additionally, the daily mean water provision (315 liters/inhabitant/day in Mexico City and 135-195 liters/inhabitant/day in State of Mexico) has to travel long distances through complex hydraulic systems.[11] It is estimated that the metropolitan area grows annually by 200 to 300 hectares on recharge areas. With every square meter that is built up, on average 170 liters of annual recharge are lost. Thus, for every hectare built up, the water for 500 families are lost and the pressure on groundwater increases further.
  • Expand the Response to challenges:
    • I could look up for additional sustainable policies that could be incorporated in the city to capture pluvial water and recharge the aquifer, for example.

Links:

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Possible Wiki topics

  1. Water management in Greater Mexico City: Water management in Greater Mexico City
  2. Irrigation in Mexico: Irrigation in Mexico
  3. Water resources management in Mexico: Water resources management in Mexico

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Article evaluation: Water management in Greater Mexico City

1) Some links don't work, for example:

[1], [18] - chapters from a document heavily cited and critical throughout the article

[8], [9], [10], [12]

2) Some information is out of date, it heavily relates on a publication that refers to data from 1990's

3) All sections are relevant and it does try to be neutral

4) Some data sources are secondary but from neutral respectable organizations (UN, USDA, local universities, etc.) and some are primary sources. A few of them are news articles.

5) The article says:

Given the size and political importance of Greater Mexico City, a major flood or a major water supply interruption would be a national political crisis potentially threatening the stability of the federal government.

I could erase the stability part because its redundant and sensationalist.

6) Missing citations with very relevant information

The Greater Mexico City's exponential population growth has depleted its groundwater resources. Currently, 4 of the 14 aquifers in the Valley of Mexico basin are overexploited.

In 1983 systematic monitoring of the water levels in the aquifer began. Since that time, the average annual declines in ground water levels range from 0.1 to 1.5 meters per year in different zones.

At the current rate of depletion, it has been calculated that the estimated volume of storage corresponds to between 200 and 350 times the annual abstraction.

Land subsidence in Mexico City caused by groundwater overexploitation during the last hundred years has been up to 9 meters, resulting in damages to buildings, streets, sidewalks, sewers, storm water drains and other infrastructure.

As mentioned above, only 15% of the wastewater in Greater Mexico City currently receives treatment. Storm water, untreated municipal wastewater and partially treated industrial wastewater mix with each other and are reused for irrigation on a large scale.

There are concerns about the health and environmental impacts of the reuse of untreated wastewater from Mexico City for irrigation. Crops to be grown using wastewater are restricted to crops not eaten raw, but these restrictions are difficult to enforce and farmers also grow vegetables using wastewater.

The Federal District had a level of non-revenue water of 40%, close to the Mexican average, meaning that only 60% of the water pumped into the system is actually being billed for. A large share of non-revenue water is due not to leakage, but to illegal connections.

7) The article is part of WikiProject Mexico which tries to improve the coverage of Mexico on Wikipedia. It is not rated.

A content gap is the gap that exists between what volunteers want or are interested to write about and what is needed by people while searching online, which a lot of time refers to academic topics. Some reasons for content gaps to exists are that volunteers will mostly write about what they are interested to improve, thus, a way to remedy this situation is to adhere to school projects like this, to take advantage of our output in a way that contributes from an academic perspective, and adhere our analysis and research to articles to improve Wikipedia's content.

Who writes in Wikipedia is important because people with very strong opinions or biased might be sloppy when writing or editing articles, failing to comply with Wikipedia's policies and best practices. Moreover, Wikipedia has a very particular definition of bias, referring to the preference of usage of neutral sources, such as NGO's and intenrational organisms over primary government sources. This is different from my own definition of bias, which is more related to an individual's stand on a subject.

CHANGES:

From: The city rests on the heavily saturated clay of the former Lake Texoco. This soft base is collapsing due to the over-extraction of groundwater.

To: Mexico City's water balance has a 6 m3/s aquifer deficit, which has caused the drying up of the heavily saturated clay of the former Lake Texoco (on which the city rests on) and has led to land subsidence.

Useful links:

http://www.revista.unam.mx/vol.14/num10/art37/

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Government incentives for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles have been established by several national and local governments around the world as a financial incentives to plug-in electric vehicle vehicles to consumers. These mainly include tax exemptions and tax credits, and additional perks that range from access to bus lines to waivers on fees (charging, parking, tolls, etc.).[12] The amount of these incentives usually depend on battery size and the vehicle all-electric range, and some countries extend the benefits to fuel cell vehicles, and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. The IEA determined that, as of 2016, 0.2% of all passenger vehicles (approximately 2 million electric vehicles ) are currently on the road worldwide.[13]

Total final consumption of energy by sector. The world’s energy consumption more than doubled between 1971 (4,244 Mtoe) and 2014 (9,426 Mtoe). Even though the proportion of energy consumption per sector did not dramatically change, the percentage of energy consumption from transport increased by 5%.

The world’s total final consumption of energy by sector represented 9,426 Million Tonnes of Oil Equivalent (Mtoe) in 2014, 28% of which is attributed to transport alone, accounting for an increase of 5% from 1971 statistics.[14] Moreover, 23% of energy-related Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions worldwide are also attributable to transport.[12] Thus, the electrification of the transport sector represents an area of opportunity for governments to cut their GHG emissions,[12] which is why they are starting to champion policies that increase plug-in hybrid electric vehicles adoption rates. 

North America

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Mexico

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Mexico has set a minimum goal of clean energies as part of the electric power generation mix in for the next years (25% in 2018, 30% in 2021 and 35% in 2024)[15] as a strategy to reach Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emission cuts. Energy efficiency is also regarded as one of the greater cost-benefit potential alternatives to achieve GHG reduction.[16] Moreover, the transport sector in Mexico represents 44.7% of the total final consumption of energy,[17] almost 17% more than the world average (28%).[14] Thus, replacing low fuel efficient transport with alternative fuels[16] is regarded as a considerable contribution to reduce 50% of its GHG emissions by the year 2050, as established by the General Law on Climate Change commitments.[18] Therefore, incentives for PHEVs have been created both at regional and federal levels to decrease cost of ownership for the end-consumers.

Minimum fuel efficiency by vehicle class[19]

Vehicle Class Minimum Fuel Efficiency (km/l)
Subcompact 16.43
Compact 14.39
Multiple use 9.7
Light truck class 1 8.61
Light truck class 2 8.51

Federal

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In Mexico, there are several existing incentives regarding Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) at a federal level. Fiscal incentives for end-consumers include higher daily lease tax deductions per car ($285 versus $200 MXN), higher tax deduction caps per car ($250,000 versus $175,000 MXN), and fiscal credits for up to 30% of investments for charging stations located in public places.[20] Furthermore, PHEVs are exempt of the tax on new vehicles (paid by the manufacturer, assembler or dealer).[21]  

Also, the electrical power service contract for residential charging stations can be independent of household consumption under a commercial rate, which can save up to 40% on electricity compared to consolidating billing in the same meter.[22][23]

Regional

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In Mexico City, Mexico State and Jalisco, PHEVs are exempt from vehicular emission verification.[24] They can instead obtain an exempt hologram which unbounds them from the restrictions imposed by the vehicular emission verification programs, which limits car usage.[25][26] PHEVs are also exempt of the annual ownership vehicle tax in Baja California, Durango, Mexico City, Mexico State, Nayarit, Tlaxcala and Queretaro.[24] In Mexico City, they also have right to a 50% discount on other contributions (permits, concessions, registry, etc.), and models from 2002 to 2017 pay only an endorsement right for vehicle control services.[27] [28] Finally, in Mexico City, PHEVs also have preferential parking in private and public parking lots.[29]

Charging station network

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EVstation (Parque España, Mexico City). Evstations are free charging stations for PHEVs and electric devices (bicycles, motorcycles and mobiles). The service is provided by Imágenes y Muebles Urbanos (IMU), owners of the stations, and was approved by the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing and the Ministry of Mobility. 28 spots exist throughout Mexico City.

As of January 2017, in Mexico there were 700 public access charging stations for PHEVs that are privately owned.[30] The Ministry of Energy and the state owned electric power utility, Comision Federal de Electricidad, will destine $25 million MXN to install 100 more charging stations through 2017-2018 in the metropolitan areas of Guadalajara, Monterrey and Mexico City.[31] As of now, users of the existing network can charge their PHEVs for free, as the cost of electricity is absorbed by the owners of the establishments where the charging stations are located.

  1. ^ Engel, K.; Jokiel, D.; Kraljevic, A.; Geiger, M.; Smith, K. (August 2011). "Big Cities, Big Water, Big Challenges: Water in an Urbanizing World" (PDF). World Wildlife Fund: 18–24. Retrieved 2012-02-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e Lanako Romero, Patricia (April 12, 2010). "Water in Mexico City: what will climate change bring to its history of water-related hazards and vulnerabilities?". Environment and Urbanization. 22 (1): 157–178. doi:10.1177/0956247809362636 – via Sage Journals.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Tortajada, Cecilia (June 2006). "Water Management in Mexico City Metropolitan Area". International Journal of Water Resources Development. 22 (2): 353–376. doi:10.1080/07900620600671367. S2CID 49353769 – via Research Gate.
  4. ^ De Urbanstein & Deltares (2016). Towards a water sensitive Mexico City. Public space as a rain management strategy (PDF). Rotterdam: Autoridad del Espacio Publico.
  5. ^ Dickson, Eric; et al. (2012). Urban Risk Assessments: An approach for understanding disaster & climate risk in cities. World Bank. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e f Lanako, Patricia Romero (April 12, 2010). "Water in Mexico City: what will climate change bring to its history of water-related hazards and vulnerabilities?". Environment and Urbanization. 22 (1): 157–178. doi:10.1177/0956247809362636 – via Sage Journals.
  7. ^ a b c "Urban Risk Assessments: An approach for understanding disaster & climate risk in cities". World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 22, 2012. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
  8. ^ "Decreed Natural Protected Areas". CONANP. November 2017. Archived from the original on March 31, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
  9. ^ "Land Conservation". SEDEMA. Archived from the original on March 31, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
  10. ^ "Natural Protected Areas in State of Mexico". Conacyt. June 1, 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2018. Retrieved March 31, 2018.
  11. ^ Torregrosa, Maria Luisa, in Lopardo, Raul Antonio (Cord.) (2015). Urban Water: Challenges in the Americas: a Perspective from the Academies of Sciences - Urban Water in Mexico (PDF). Mexico: IANAS. ISBN 978-6078379125.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b c "Global EV Outlook 2007: Two million and counting" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 7 October 2017.
  13. ^ Which Countries Have the Best Incentives for EV Purchases?, Fleetcarma, retrieved 2017-10-04
  14. ^ a b "Excerpt from: World energy balances" (PDF). International Energy Agency. 7 October 2017.
  15. ^ "Energy Transition Law". Official Journal of the Federation. 7 October 2017.
  16. ^ a b "National Energy Strategy 2014-2028" (PDF). Ministry of Energy. {{cite web}}: |archive-date= requires |archive-url= (help)
  17. ^ "Energy Information System". Ministry of Energy - Energy Information System. 7 October 2017.
  18. ^ "Intended Nationally Determined Contribution - Mexico" (PDF). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 7 October 2017.
  19. ^ "Energy Efficiency Guidelines for the Federal Public Adminsitration". Official Journal of the Federation. 7 October 2017.
  20. ^ "Income Tax Law" (PDF). Mexico’s Chamber of Deputies. 7 October 2017.
  21. ^ "Federal Tax Law on New Vehicles" (PDF). Mexico’s Chamber of Deputies.
  22. ^ "CFE promotes the use of electric vehicles with installation of independent meters on consumer's households". Federal Electricity Commission. 7 October 2017.
  23. ^ "Power service contract guide for charging stations for electric vehicles" (PDF). Federal Electricity Commission. 7 October 2017.
  24. ^ a b "Opinion of the Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources to the Agreement point that urges federal government and governors or the 32 federation entities to implement actions that encourage the use of electric vehicles" (PDF). Mexico’s Senate of the Republic. 7 October 2017.
  25. ^ "Programs: Vehicle Verification". Mexico’s Ministry of the Environment. 7 October 2017.
  26. ^ "Services and Procedures". Mexico State’s Ministry of the Environment. 7 October 2017.
  27. ^ "Services: Vehicular Control Services 2017". Mexico City’s Ministry of Finance. 7 October 2017.
  28. ^ "Ownership or use tax 2017: Electric and hybrid vehicles". Mexico City’s Ministry of Finance. 7 October 2017.
  29. ^ "Mobility Law" (PDF). Mexico City’s Environmental and Territorial Ordering Office. 7 October 2017.
  30. ^ "CFE's CEO inaugurates substation and charging station for PHEVs number 700". Energia a Debate. 7 October 2017.
  31. ^ "The Energy Ministry announces the installation of 100 charging stations for PHEVs". El Universal. 20 September 2017.
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