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Status and Treatment
[edit]
Before the Middle Ages(i.e. approximately before the Edict of Milan in 313), the Christians, in contrast to the Jews, were often persecuted by the Roman state. [1] [2] [3] While Jews were recognized as the members of a legal association(if not enjoying the status of members of a national community), Christians on the other hand were often persecuted. At least before 249, the legal ground for this persecution may be "buried deep within Roman bureaucratic operations." It seems that the persecuters were doing so without knowing the precise reason for doing that. [1] "Despite persecution, however Christianity spread with rapidity throughout the Mediterrahean,"[3] but "not until A.D. 300 was Christianity effectively represented throughout Roman Empire" [4]
Under the Muslim rule, Christians were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute to Muslims and acknowledging Muslim supremacy.[5] Christians rarely faced martydom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and with certain exceptions they were free in their choice of residence and profession. [6] Various restrictions and legal disabilities were placed on Dhimmis, such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[7] Most of these disabilities had a social and symbolic rather than a tangible and practical character.[8]
Taxation and social and legal disabilities were the concerns of Christians under the Muslim rule:
A per capita tax, known as jizya, was imposed on adult Christian males who were neither old nor sick nor monks [9] Although, the change from Byzantine and Persian rule to Arab rule lowered taxes and created greater religious freedom, and was welcomed by some Jews and Christians, nevertheless the taxation was a concern for non-Muslims who were paying a higher tax than the zakat tax paid by Muslims. It was also an important factor persuading many Christians to convert to Islam, though during the first century after the Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine conversion to Islam was not encourage "partly because the taxation constituted an important source of state revenue".[10] Scholars differ as to the exact burden imposed by the jizya tax. Documentary evidence, including that found in eleventh-century Cairo Geniza documents, suggest that the burden, at least for the poorer classes, was heavy. As the taxation amount was fixed in gold, it became less burdensome over the centuries. [11]
The legal disabilities for example included invalidity of their testimonies in courts in cases involving Muslims under the Hanafi jurists (Christians were operating their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order). Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis’ beliefs. [12]
The social disabilities included discriminations such as requirement of distinctive clothing, ban on riding horses or camels(they were only allowed to ride donkeys). The requirement of distinctive clothing (see yellow badge), had its origin in early medieval Baghdad and was the most degrading of the regulations, although its enforcement was highly erratic. [13]
The position of Christians under the Muslim rule was that of inferior status however in most respects their position was "was very much easier than that of non-Christians or even of heretical Christians in medieval Europe"[14]
Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and persecuted in the Roman Empire, mainly unofficially, but also sometimes officially. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal, and, especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects (the Jews only excepted) sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity — a practice that Christianity (along with Judaism) rejected. [15]State persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire is taken to have ended with the Edict of Milan[16], but it persisted or even intensified in other places, such as Sassanid Persia[17], and later under Islam[18].
There was some persecution of Christians after the French Revolution during the attempted Dechristianisation of France.[19] State restrictions on Christian practices today are generally associated with those authoritarian governments which either support a majority religion other than Christianity (as in Muslim states[20]), or tolerate only churches under government supervision, sometimes while officially promoting state atheism (as in North Korea). For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches and has regularly suppressed house churches or underground Catholics. The public practice of Christianity is outlawed in Saudi Arabia. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today.
Complaints of discrimination have also been made by Christians in various other contexts. In some parts of the world, there is persecution of Christians by dominant religious groups or political groups. Many Christians are threatened, discriminated, jailed, or even killed for their faith. Christians are persecuted today in many areas of the world including Cuba, Middle East, North Korea, China, the Sudan, and Kosovo. [1][2][3][4] [5]
Status of non-Christians under Christian rule
[edit]Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with government support, have destroyed pagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (such as the philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by a Christian mob). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations, and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into religious wars and inquisitions. Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America. The degree to which these acts were supported by formal Christian doctrine and scripture is a topic of much debate.
- ^ a b Edward Kessler (2005), p.385
- ^ Robert G. Calkins p.xix
- ^ a b Introduction to Contemporary Civilization in the West: Volume 1, p.266
- ^ Edward Grant (1996) p.2
- ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20
- ^ Lewis (1999) p.131
- ^ Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27
- ^ Lewis (1984) p. 26
- ^ Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003
- ^ Cleveland, William L. A History of the Modern Middle East, Westview Press, Nov 1, 1999, p. 15.
- ^ Lewis 1984, p.26
- ^ al-Qattan (1999)
- ^ Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice, 1999, W. W. Norton & Company press, ISBN: 0393318397, p.131.
- ^ Lewis (1984) p. 62, Cohen (1995) p. xvii
- ^ http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm "Persecution in the Early Church"
- ^ http://ctlibrary.com/3744 "313 The Edict of Milan ", 1990
- ^ http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch22c.htm "The Sassanids to 500 CE"
- ^ http://www.amazon.com/Decline-Eastern-Christianity-Under-Islam/dp/0838636888/ref=pd_sxp_f_pt/104-2581121-5778351?ie=UTF8 "The Decline of Eastern Christianity Under Islam: From Jihad to Dhimmitude : Seventh-Twentieth Century" by Bat Ye'Or, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
- ^ Chambers, Mortimer (1974). "21". The Western Experience Volume II: The Early Modern Period (1st ed.). Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0-394-31734-3.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ http://www.amazon.com/Their-Blood-Cries-Paul-Marshall/dp/0849940206/ref=pd_sxp_f_r/104-2581121-5778351?ie=UTF8 "Their Blood Cries Out", Paul Marshell, Lela Gilbert, W PUBLISHING GROUP http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=24886 "Christians persecuted in Islamic nations", Worldnetdaily.com