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{{Multiple issues|
{{Merge from|Retrograde pyelogram|discuss=Talk:Pyelogram#Proposed merge of Retrograde pyelogram into Pyelogram|date=July 2020}}
{{Merge from|Retrograde pyelogram|discuss=Talk:Pyelogram#Proposed merge of Retrograde pyelogram into Pyelogram|date=July 2020}}
{{Merge from|Intravenous pyelogram|discuss=Talk:Pyelogram#Proposed merge of Intravenous pyelogram into Pyelogram|date=July 2020}}
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{{Infobox interventions |
{{Infobox interventions |
Name = Pyelogram |
Name = Pyelogram |
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Types include:
Types include:
* [[Intravenous pyelogram]] – In which a contrast solution is introduced through a vein into the circulatory system. This is a form of anterograde pyelogram.
* [[#Intravenous pyelogram|Intravenous pyelogram]] – In which a contrast solution is introduced through a vein into the circulatory system.
* [[Retrograde pyelogram]] – Any pyelogram in which contrast medium is introduced from the lower urinary tract and flows toward the kidney (i.e. in a "retrograde" direction, against the normal flow of urine).
* [[Retrograde pyelogram]] – Any pyelogram in which contrast medium is introduced from the lower urinary tract and flows toward the kidney (i.e. in a "retrograde" direction, against the normal flow of urine).
* [[#Anterograde pyelogram|Anterograde pyelogram]] (also antegrade pyelogram) – Any pyelogram where a contrast medium passes from the kidneys toward the bladder, mimicking the normal flow of urine.
* [[#Anterograde pyelogram|Anterograde pyelogram]] (also antegrade pyelogram) – A pyelogram where a contrast medium passes from the kidneys toward the bladder, mimicking the normal flow of urine.
* '''Gas pyelogram''' – A pyelogram that uses a gaseous rather than liquid contrast medium.<ref>Urology Secrets, 2nd Ed.,; Resnick, MD, Novick, MD; Hanley & Belfus, Inc., 1999, esp Chapt. 13, Evaluation of Hydronephrosis in Children by Kay, MD.</ref> It may also form without the injection of a gas, when gas producing micro-organisms infect the most upper parts of urinary system.<ref>Wein, Kavoussi, Novick, Partin, Peters, Campbell-Walsh Urology, 9th edition, 2007.</ref><ref>Emil A, Tnagho, Jack W. McAninch, Smith’s General Urology, 17th edition, 2008, Lange Medical Book, New York.</ref>
* '''Gas pyelogram''' – A pyelogram that uses a gaseous rather than liquid contrast medium.<ref>Urology Secrets, 2nd Ed.,; Resnick, MD, Novick, MD; Hanley & Belfus, Inc., 1999, esp Chapt. 13, Evaluation of Hydronephrosis in Children by Kay, MD.</ref> It may also form without the injection of a gas, when gas producing micro-organisms infect the most upper parts of urinary system.<ref>Wein, Kavoussi, Novick, Partin, Peters, Campbell-Walsh Urology, 9th edition, 2007.</ref><ref>Emil A, Tnagho, Jack W. McAninch, Smith’s General Urology, 17th edition, 2008, Lange Medical Book, New York.</ref>

==Intravenous pyelogram==
{{Infobox medical intervention |
Name = Intravenous pyelogram |
Image = Ivu 1.jpg |
Caption = An Example of an IVU radiograph |
Specialty = [[Radiology]]|
ICD10 = |
ICD9 = 87.73 |
OPS301 = {{OPS301|3-13d}}.0 |
OtherCodes = |
}}
An '''intravenous pyelogram''' ('''IVP'''), also called an '''intravenous urogram''' ('''IVU'''), is a [[radiology|radiological]] procedure used to visualize abnormalities of the [[urinary system]], including the [[kidney]]s, [[ureter]]s, and [[urinary bladder|bladder]]. Unlike a [[kidneys, ureters, and bladder x-ray]] (KUB), which is a plain (that is, noncontrast) radiograph, an IVP uses [[radiocontrast agent|contrast]] to highlight the [[urinary system|urinary tract]].

In IVP, the contrast agent is given through a vein ([[intravenous therapy|intravenously]]), allowed to be [[clearance (pharmacology)|cleared by the kidneys]] and [[excretion|excreted]] through the urinary tract as part of the [[urine]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=What is an Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP)? - Urology Care Foundation|url=https://www.urologyhealth.org/urologic-conditions/intravenous-pyelogram-(ivp)|access-date=2020-07-04|website=www.urologyhealth.org}}</ref> If this is [[contraindication|contraindicated]] for some reason, a [[retrograde pyelogram]], with the contrast flowing upstream, can be done instead.

===Uses===
An intravenous pyelogram is used to look for problems relating to the urinary tract.<ref name=":0" /> These may include blockages or narrowing, such as due to kidney stones, cancer (such as [[renal cell carcinoma]] or [[transitional cell carcinoma]]), [[Enlarged prostate|enlarged prostate glands]], and anatomical variations,<ref name=":0" /> such as a [[medullary sponge kidney]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Intravenous pyelogram - Mayo Clinic|url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/intravenous-pyelogram/about/pac-20394475|access-date=2020-07-04|website=www.mayoclinic.org}}</ref> They may also be able to show evidence of chronic scarring due to recurrent urinary tract infections,<ref name=":0" /> and to assess for cysts<ref name=":1" /> associated with polycystic kidney disease.
*Obstruction (commonly at the pelvic-ureteric junction or ''PUJ'' and the vesicoureteric junction or ''VUJ'') This is very useful.

===Procedure===
An injection of X-ray [[contrast medium]] is given to a patient via a needle or [[cannula]] into the [[vein]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Intravenous Pyelogram|url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/intravenous-pyelogram|access-date=2020-07-04|website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org|language=en}}</ref> typically in the antecubital fossa of arm. The contrast is ''excreted'' or removed from the bloodstream via the kidneys, and the contrast media becomes visible on X-rays almost immediately after injection. [[X-rays]] are taken at specific time intervals to capture the contrast as it travels through the different parts of the urinary system.<ref name=":2" /> At the end of the test, a person is asked to pass urine and a final X-ray is taken.<ref name=":2" />

Before the test, a person is asked to pass urine so that their bladder is emptied.<ref name=":0" /> They are asked to lie flat during the procedure.<ref name=":2" />

====Normal appearances====
Immediately after the contrast is administered, it appears on an X-ray as a 'renal blush'. This is the contrast being filtered through the cortex. At an interval of 3 minutes, the renal blush is still evident (to a lesser extent) but the calyces and [[renal pelvis]] are now visible. At 9 to 13 minutes the contrast begins to empty into the [[ureters]] and travel to the [[urinary bladder|bladder]] which has now begun to fill. To visualize the bladder correctly, a post micturition X-ray is taken, so that the bulk of the contrast (which can mask a pathology) is emptied.

An IVP can be performed in either emergency or routine circumstances.

====Emergency IVP====
This procedure is carried out on patients who present to an Emergency department, usually with severe [[renal colic]] and a positive [[hematuria]] test. In this circumstance the attending physician requires to know whether a patient has a kidney stone and if it is causing any obstruction in the urinary system.

Patients with a positive find for [[kidney stones]] but with no obstruction are sometimes discharged based on the size of the stone with a follow-up appointment with a urologist.

Patients with a kidney stone ''and'' obstruction are usually required to stay in hospital for monitoring or further treatment.

An Emergency IVP is carried out roughly as follows:

*plain [[Kidneys, ureters, and bladder x-ray|KUB]] or [[abdominal X-ray]];
*an injection of [[Contrast medium|contrast media]], typically 50&nbsp;ml;
*delayed abdominal X-ray, taken at roughly 15 minutes post injection.

If no obstruction is evident on this film a post-micturition film is taken and the patient is sent back to the Emergency department. If an obstruction ''is'' visible, a post-micturition film is still taken, but is followed up with a series of radiographs taken at a "double time" interval. For example, at 30 minutes post-injection, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, and so forth, until the obstruction is seen to resolve. This time delay can give important information to the urologist on where and how severe the obstruction is. This is very useful.

====Routine IVP====

This procedure is most common for patients who have unexplained microscopic or macroscopic hematuria. It is used to ascertain the presence of a tumour or similar anatomy-altering disorders. The sequence of images is roughly as follows:

*plain or Control [[Kidneys, ureters, and bladder|KUB]] image;
*immediate X-ray of just the renal area;
*5 minute X-ray of just the renal area.
*15 minute X-ray of just the renal area.

{{anchor|compression}}'''At this point, compression may or may not be applied (this is contraindicated in cases of obstruction).'''

In pyelography, compression involves pressing on the lower abdominal area, which results in distension of the upper urinary tract.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tQOpR-GnnjoC&pg=PA159 Page 159] in: {{cite book |author1=Geoffrey D. Rubin |author2=Mannudeep K. Kalra |author3=Sanjay Saini |title=MDCT: From Protocols to Practice |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |year=2008 |isbn=88-470-0831-X }}</ref>

*If compression is applied: a 10 minutes post-injection X-ray of the renal area is taken, followed by a KUB on release of the compression.
*If compression is not given: a standard KUB is taken to show the ureters emptying. This may sometimes be done with the patient lying in a [[prone position]].
*A post-micturition X-ray is taken afterwards. This is usually a coned bladder view.

====Image assessment====
The kidneys are assessed and compared for:
* Regular appearance, smooth outlines, size, position, equal filtration and flow.

The ureters are assessed and compared for:
* Size, a smooth regular and symmetrical appearance. A 'standing column' is suggestive of a partial obstruction.

The bladder is assessed for:
* Regular smooth appearance and complete voiding.

===Risks===
Intravenous pyelograms use [[ionizing radiation]], which involves risk to healthy tissues ([[carcinogen|potentially encouraging cancer]] or [[teratology|risking birth defects]]).<ref name=":0" /> Therefore, they are often now replaced by [[medical ultrasound|ultrasonography]] and more recently by [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI), which use sound waves or magnetism instead. Also, the [[iodinated contrast]] medium used in contrast CT and contrast radiography can cause [[allergy|allergic reaction]]s, including [[anaphylaxis|severe ones]].<ref name=":0" /> The contrast dye may also be [[Nephrotoxicity|toxic to the kidneys]].<ref name=":2" /> Because a cannula is inserted, there is also a risk of a [[cannula site infection]], that may cause fevers or redness of the cannula area.<ref name=":2" />

===Contraindications===
* '''[[Metformin]] use:''' Historically, the drug metformin has been required to stop 48 hours pre and post procedure, as it known to cause a reaction with the contrast agent. However the newest guidelines published by the Royal College of Radiologists suggests this is not as important for patients having <100mls of contrast, who have a [[creatinine|normal kidney function]]. If kidney impairment is found before administration of the contrast, metformin should be stopped 48 hours before and after the procedure.<ref>Thomsen HS, Morcos SK, and members of the Contrast Media Safety Committee of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology. Contrast media and metformin. Guidelines to distinguish the risk of lactic acidosis in non-insulin dependent diabetics after administration of contrast media.European Radiology, 1999; 9: 738-740.</ref>
* '''Contrast allergy:''' If the patient has any previous history of adverse or moderate reactions to contrast medium.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Caro | first = J. Jaime |author2=Evelinda Trindade |author3=Maurice McGregor | title = The Risks of Death and of Severe Nonfatal Reactions with High- vs Low Osmolarity Contrast Media: A Meta-analysis | journal = American Journal of Roentgenology | volume = 156 | issue = 4 | pages = 825–832 | publisher = American Roentgen Ray Society | year = 1991 | url = http://www.ajronline.org/cgi/content/abstract/156/4/825 | pmid = 1825900 | doi=10.2214/ajr.156.4.1825900| doi-access = free }}</ref>
* Patient with significantly decreased kidney function ;because contrast media can be nephrotoxic and worsen kidney function


==Anterograde pyelogram==
==Anterograde pyelogram==
Line 45: Line 121:
}}
}}
'''Antegrade pyelography''' is the procedure used to visualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract, i.e., [[kidney]] and [[ureter]].
'''Antegrade pyelography''' is the procedure used to visualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract, i.e., [[kidney]] and [[ureter]].
It is done in cases where excretory or [[retrograde pyelogram|retrograde pyelography]] has failed or contraindicated, or when a [[nephrostomy]] tube is in place or delineation of upper tract is desired.
It is done in cases where excretory or [[retrograde pyelogram|retrograde pyelography]] has failed or contraindicated, or when a [[nephrostomy]] tube is in place or delineation of upper tract is desired. It is commonly used to diagnose upper tract obstruction, [[hydronephrosis]], and ureteropelvic junction obstruction. In this, radiocontrast dye is injected into the renal pelvis and [[X-rays]] are taken. It provides detailed anatomy of the upper collecting system. As it is an invasive procedure, it is chosen when other non-invasive tests are non confirmatory or contraindicated and patient monitoring is required prior and after the procedure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=92&ContentID=P07702|title=Antegrade Pyelogram|publisher=|accessdate=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urologyhealth.org/urology/index.cfm?article=71|title=Antegrade Pyelography|publisher=Urology Care Foundation|accessdate=4 March 2015}}</ref>
It is commonly used to diagnose upper tract obstruction, [[hydronephrosis]], and ureteropelvic junction obstruction.
In this, radiocontrast dye is injected into the renal pelvis and [[X-rays]] are taken.
It provides detailed anatomy of the upper collecting system.
As it is an invasive procedure, it is chosen when other non-invasive tests are non confirmatory or contraindicated and patient monitoring is required prior and after the procedure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/encyclopedia/content.aspx?ContentTypeID=92&ContentID=P07702|title=Antegrade Pyelogram|publisher=|accessdate=17 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urologyhealth.org/urology/index.cfm?article=71|title=Antegrade Pyelography|publisher=Urology Care Foundation|accessdate=4 March 2015}}</ref>
{{-}}
{{-}}

===Future===
IVP is an affordable yet useful [[medical imaging|imaging]] modality and continues to be relevant in many parts of the world. In the developed world, however, it has increasingly been replaced by contrast [[CT scan|computed tomography]] of the urinary tract ([[CT urography]]), which gives greater detail of anatomy and function.<ref name=":0" />

===History===
The technique of IVP was originally developed by [[Leonard Rowntree]] of the [[Mayo Clinic]] in the 1920s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=OSBORNE|first1=EARL D.|date=10 February 1923|title=ROENTGENOGRAPHY OF URINARY TRACT DURING EXCRETION OF SODIUM IODID|journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association|volume=80|issue=6|pages=368|doi=10.1001/jama.1923.02640330004002}}</ref> IVP was previously the test of choice for diagnosing ureter obstruction secondary to urolithiasis but in the late 1990s non-contrast computerized tomography of the abdomen and pelvis replaced it because of its increased specificity regarding etiologies of obstruction.<ref name="SmithRosenfield1995">{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=R C|last2=Rosenfield|first2=A T|last3=Choe|first3=K A|last4=Essenmacher|first4=K R|last5=Verga|first5=M|last6=Glickman|first6=M G|last7=Lange|first7=R C|year=1995|title=Acute flank pain: comparison of non-contrast-enhanced CT and intravenous urography.|journal=Radiology|volume=194|issue=3|pages=789–794|doi=10.1148/radiology.194.3.7862980|issn=0033-8419}}</ref> Now, because of increased accuracy computed tomography and ultrasounds of the renal tract are used; ultrasounds additionally do not involve radiation.<ref name=":1" />

[[Etymology|Etymologically]], urography is [[contrast radiography]] of the [[urinary system|urinary tract]] (''[[wikt:uro-#Prefix|uro-]]'' + ''[[wikt:-graphy#Suffix|-graphy]]''), and pyelography is contrast radiography of the [[renal pelvis]] (''[[wikt:pyelo-#Prefix|pyelo-]]'' + ''[[wikt:-graphy#Suffix|-graphy]]''), but in present-day standard medical [[usage]], they are [[synonym]]ous.

==Treatment==
Depending on the outcome and diagnosis following an IVP, treatment may be required for the patient. These include [[surgery]], [[lithotripsy]], [[ureteric stent]] insertion and [[radiofrequency ablation]]. Sometimes no treatment is necessary as stones <5mm can be passed without any intervention.

==See also==
*[[Urodynamics]]
*[[Urology]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Intravenous pyelogram|IVP}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060325192945/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/11663-1.asp eMedicine]
* [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003782.htm NLM/MedlinePlus]
* [http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info.cfm?pg=ivp RadiologyInfo: IVP]
* [http://www.cirse.org/index.php?pid=85 Cardiovascular and Interventional Radiological Society of Europe]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928021310/http://www.rcr.ac.uk/docs/radiology/pdf/IVcontrastPrintFinal.pdf RCR guidelines]


{{Urologic surgical and other procedures}}
{{Urologic surgical and other procedures}}

Revision as of 21:06, 18 January 2021

Pyelogram
ICD-987.73, 87.74, 87.75
MeSHD014567
OPS-301 code3-13d

Pyelogram (or pyelography or urography) is a form of imaging of the renal pelvis and ureter.[1]

Types include:

  • Intravenous pyelogram – In which a contrast solution is introduced through a vein into the circulatory system.
  • Retrograde pyelogram – Any pyelogram in which contrast medium is introduced from the lower urinary tract and flows toward the kidney (i.e. in a "retrograde" direction, against the normal flow of urine).
  • Anterograde pyelogram (also antegrade pyelogram) – A pyelogram where a contrast medium passes from the kidneys toward the bladder, mimicking the normal flow of urine.
  • Gas pyelogram – A pyelogram that uses a gaseous rather than liquid contrast medium.[2] It may also form without the injection of a gas, when gas producing micro-organisms infect the most upper parts of urinary system.[3][4]

Intravenous pyelogram

Intravenous pyelogram
An Example of an IVU radiograph
SpecialtyRadiology
ICD-9-CM87.73
OPS-301 code3-13d.0

An intravenous pyelogram (IVP), also called an intravenous urogram (IVU), is a radiological procedure used to visualize abnormalities of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. Unlike a kidneys, ureters, and bladder x-ray (KUB), which is a plain (that is, noncontrast) radiograph, an IVP uses contrast to highlight the urinary tract.

In IVP, the contrast agent is given through a vein (intravenously), allowed to be cleared by the kidneys and excreted through the urinary tract as part of the urine.[5] If this is contraindicated for some reason, a retrograde pyelogram, with the contrast flowing upstream, can be done instead.

Uses

An intravenous pyelogram is used to look for problems relating to the urinary tract.[5] These may include blockages or narrowing, such as due to kidney stones, cancer (such as renal cell carcinoma or transitional cell carcinoma), enlarged prostate glands, and anatomical variations,[5] such as a medullary sponge kidney.[6] They may also be able to show evidence of chronic scarring due to recurrent urinary tract infections,[5] and to assess for cysts[6] associated with polycystic kidney disease.

  • Obstruction (commonly at the pelvic-ureteric junction or PUJ and the vesicoureteric junction or VUJ) This is very useful.

Procedure

An injection of X-ray contrast medium is given to a patient via a needle or cannula into the vein,[7] typically in the antecubital fossa of arm. The contrast is excreted or removed from the bloodstream via the kidneys, and the contrast media becomes visible on X-rays almost immediately after injection. X-rays are taken at specific time intervals to capture the contrast as it travels through the different parts of the urinary system.[7] At the end of the test, a person is asked to pass urine and a final X-ray is taken.[7]

Before the test, a person is asked to pass urine so that their bladder is emptied.[5] They are asked to lie flat during the procedure.[7]

Normal appearances

Immediately after the contrast is administered, it appears on an X-ray as a 'renal blush'. This is the contrast being filtered through the cortex. At an interval of 3 minutes, the renal blush is still evident (to a lesser extent) but the calyces and renal pelvis are now visible. At 9 to 13 minutes the contrast begins to empty into the ureters and travel to the bladder which has now begun to fill. To visualize the bladder correctly, a post micturition X-ray is taken, so that the bulk of the contrast (which can mask a pathology) is emptied.

An IVP can be performed in either emergency or routine circumstances.

Emergency IVP

This procedure is carried out on patients who present to an Emergency department, usually with severe renal colic and a positive hematuria test. In this circumstance the attending physician requires to know whether a patient has a kidney stone and if it is causing any obstruction in the urinary system.

Patients with a positive find for kidney stones but with no obstruction are sometimes discharged based on the size of the stone with a follow-up appointment with a urologist.

Patients with a kidney stone and obstruction are usually required to stay in hospital for monitoring or further treatment.

An Emergency IVP is carried out roughly as follows:

If no obstruction is evident on this film a post-micturition film is taken and the patient is sent back to the Emergency department. If an obstruction is visible, a post-micturition film is still taken, but is followed up with a series of radiographs taken at a "double time" interval. For example, at 30 minutes post-injection, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, and so forth, until the obstruction is seen to resolve. This time delay can give important information to the urologist on where and how severe the obstruction is. This is very useful.

Routine IVP

This procedure is most common for patients who have unexplained microscopic or macroscopic hematuria. It is used to ascertain the presence of a tumour or similar anatomy-altering disorders. The sequence of images is roughly as follows:

  • plain or Control KUB image;
  • immediate X-ray of just the renal area;
  • 5 minute X-ray of just the renal area.
  • 15 minute X-ray of just the renal area.

At this point, compression may or may not be applied (this is contraindicated in cases of obstruction).

In pyelography, compression involves pressing on the lower abdominal area, which results in distension of the upper urinary tract.[8]

  • If compression is applied: a 10 minutes post-injection X-ray of the renal area is taken, followed by a KUB on release of the compression.
  • If compression is not given: a standard KUB is taken to show the ureters emptying. This may sometimes be done with the patient lying in a prone position.
  • A post-micturition X-ray is taken afterwards. This is usually a coned bladder view.

Image assessment

The kidneys are assessed and compared for:

  • Regular appearance, smooth outlines, size, position, equal filtration and flow.

The ureters are assessed and compared for:

  • Size, a smooth regular and symmetrical appearance. A 'standing column' is suggestive of a partial obstruction.

The bladder is assessed for:

  • Regular smooth appearance and complete voiding.

Risks

Intravenous pyelograms use ionizing radiation, which involves risk to healthy tissues (potentially encouraging cancer or risking birth defects).[5] Therefore, they are often now replaced by ultrasonography and more recently by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which use sound waves or magnetism instead. Also, the iodinated contrast medium used in contrast CT and contrast radiography can cause allergic reactions, including severe ones.[5] The contrast dye may also be toxic to the kidneys.[7] Because a cannula is inserted, there is also a risk of a cannula site infection, that may cause fevers or redness of the cannula area.[7]

Contraindications

  • Metformin use: Historically, the drug metformin has been required to stop 48 hours pre and post procedure, as it known to cause a reaction with the contrast agent. However the newest guidelines published by the Royal College of Radiologists suggests this is not as important for patients having <100mls of contrast, who have a normal kidney function. If kidney impairment is found before administration of the contrast, metformin should be stopped 48 hours before and after the procedure.[9]
  • Contrast allergy: If the patient has any previous history of adverse or moderate reactions to contrast medium.[10]
  • Patient with significantly decreased kidney function ;because contrast media can be nephrotoxic and worsen kidney function

Anterograde pyelogram

Antegrade pyelography, anterograde pyelography
Antegrade pyelogram of grade III hydronephrosis with obstruction at the ureterovesical junction due to bladder endometriosis in a 29 year old female. The tip of the nephrostomy is located in an inferior calyx.
Purposevisualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract

Antegrade pyelography is the procedure used to visualize the upper collecting system of the urinary tract, i.e., kidney and ureter. It is done in cases where excretory or retrograde pyelography has failed or contraindicated, or when a nephrostomy tube is in place or delineation of upper tract is desired. It is commonly used to diagnose upper tract obstruction, hydronephrosis, and ureteropelvic junction obstruction. In this, radiocontrast dye is injected into the renal pelvis and X-rays are taken. It provides detailed anatomy of the upper collecting system. As it is an invasive procedure, it is chosen when other non-invasive tests are non confirmatory or contraindicated and patient monitoring is required prior and after the procedure.[11][12]

Future

IVP is an affordable yet useful imaging modality and continues to be relevant in many parts of the world. In the developed world, however, it has increasingly been replaced by contrast computed tomography of the urinary tract (CT urography), which gives greater detail of anatomy and function.[5]

History

The technique of IVP was originally developed by Leonard Rowntree of the Mayo Clinic in the 1920s.[13] IVP was previously the test of choice for diagnosing ureter obstruction secondary to urolithiasis but in the late 1990s non-contrast computerized tomography of the abdomen and pelvis replaced it because of its increased specificity regarding etiologies of obstruction.[14] Now, because of increased accuracy computed tomography and ultrasounds of the renal tract are used; ultrasounds additionally do not involve radiation.[6]

Etymologically, urography is contrast radiography of the urinary tract (uro- + -graphy), and pyelography is contrast radiography of the renal pelvis (pyelo- + -graphy), but in present-day standard medical usage, they are synonymous.

Treatment

Depending on the outcome and diagnosis following an IVP, treatment may be required for the patient. These include surgery, lithotripsy, ureteric stent insertion and radiofrequency ablation. Sometimes no treatment is necessary as stones <5mm can be passed without any intervention.

See also

References

  1. ^ "pyelography" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  2. ^ Urology Secrets, 2nd Ed.,; Resnick, MD, Novick, MD; Hanley & Belfus, Inc., 1999, esp Chapt. 13, Evaluation of Hydronephrosis in Children by Kay, MD.
  3. ^ Wein, Kavoussi, Novick, Partin, Peters, Campbell-Walsh Urology, 9th edition, 2007.
  4. ^ Emil A, Tnagho, Jack W. McAninch, Smith’s General Urology, 17th edition, 2008, Lange Medical Book, New York.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h "What is an Intravenous Pyelogram (IVP)? - Urology Care Foundation". www.urologyhealth.org. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  6. ^ a b c "Intravenous pyelogram - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  7. ^ a b c d e f "Intravenous Pyelogram". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2020-07-04.
  8. ^ Page 159 in: Geoffrey D. Rubin; Mannudeep K. Kalra; Sanjay Saini (2008). MDCT: From Protocols to Practice. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 88-470-0831-X.
  9. ^ Thomsen HS, Morcos SK, and members of the Contrast Media Safety Committee of the European Society of Urogenital Radiology. Contrast media and metformin. Guidelines to distinguish the risk of lactic acidosis in non-insulin dependent diabetics after administration of contrast media.European Radiology, 1999; 9: 738-740.
  10. ^ Caro, J. Jaime; Evelinda Trindade; Maurice McGregor (1991). "The Risks of Death and of Severe Nonfatal Reactions with High- vs Low Osmolarity Contrast Media: A Meta-analysis". American Journal of Roentgenology. 156 (4). American Roentgen Ray Society: 825–832. doi:10.2214/ajr.156.4.1825900. PMID 1825900.
  11. ^ "Antegrade Pyelogram". Retrieved 17 January 2015.
  12. ^ "Antegrade Pyelography". Urology Care Foundation. Retrieved 4 March 2015.
  13. ^ OSBORNE, EARL D. (10 February 1923). "ROENTGENOGRAPHY OF URINARY TRACT DURING EXCRETION OF SODIUM IODID". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 80 (6): 368. doi:10.1001/jama.1923.02640330004002.
  14. ^ Smith, R C; Rosenfield, A T; Choe, K A; Essenmacher, K R; Verga, M; Glickman, M G; Lange, R C (1995). "Acute flank pain: comparison of non-contrast-enhanced CT and intravenous urography". Radiology. 194 (3): 789–794. doi:10.1148/radiology.194.3.7862980. ISSN 0033-8419.

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