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Saharan Dust

Introduction

Saharan Dust is categorized as an aeolian mineral dust which comes from the Sahara desert, which is the largest hot desert in the world. The desert spans just over 9 million square kilometers, from the Atlantic ocean to the red sea, from the Mediterranean sea to the Niger River valley and the Sudan region in the south.^[1] The Sahara is the largest source of aeolian dust in the world with annual production rates of about 400-700 x 10⁶ tons/year, which is almost half of all aeolian desert inputs to the ocean.^[2] Saharan dust is often produced by natural process such as wind storms, and doesn’t appear to be heavily impacted by human activities.^[3] In most cases marine bacteria and phytoplankton require small amounts of the micronutrient iron, which can be supplied via the dust transport of Saharan dust. The dust delivered to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has a small percentage of dissolvable iron,^[4] however, since so much iron is supplied to the regions, even with a low soluble percentage, Saharan dust is a large source of iron to these regions. Factors that contribute to the dust solubility are the size of the dust particles, minerals in the dust, temperature of the water, and the pH of the water.^[5]^[6] The presence of organic molecules called ligands can also increase the solubility of iron and make it more accessible for organisms to use for primary production.^[7]

Saharan dust will travel in different directions due to different wind events and wind directions. It has been found to travel to the Amazon basin, Scandinavia,^[8] Japan,^[9] and other regions. The dust supplied to the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean^[10] brings limiting nutrients that help to boost primary production. For the Amazon basin, which is limited in phosphorus in much of the soil in the basin, Saharan dust is a main source of phosphorus. This dust has also impacted ecosystems in the Southeastern United States and the Caribbean by supplying limiting nutrients to ecosystems, and in some cases promoting soil development on land.^[11] Saharan dust has even been found on glaciers and studied to examine atmospheric circulation.^[11] Human impacts of Saharan dust can include respiratory difficulties^[12]^[13] and other adverse health conditions during dust storms in the surrounding regions.^[14]

Properties of Saharan dust

Physical properties

Saharan dust particles from a 2005 dust storm event were analyzed, and the diameter of particles ranged from 100 nanometers (1nanometer= 1 x 10⁻⁹ meters) to 50 micrometers (1micrometer= 1 x10⁻⁶ meters). It appeared that most of the particles were coated in sulfates, with the average coating on the silicate particles being 60 nanometers thick.^[3] In the atmosphere, particles can act as aerosols, which can help deflect sunlight back out into space. The absorption of sunlight increases with the decreasing particle size. For the reflectively (albedo) of the particles, all samples varied between 0.945 and 0.955. Values close to 1 indicate that these particles are highly reflective.^[3] The size of Saharan dust particles is largely determined by the distance from the source. The first particles to leave the atmosphere and return to the surface will be the biggest and coarsest particles. As the particle’s travel further away, the smaller particles will remain.^[11]

Chemical properties

In the samples of Saharan dust from 2005, the average composition of the dust particles was: 64% silicates, 14% sulfates, 6% quartz, 5% high calcium particles, 1% iron rich (hematite), 1% soot, and 9% other carbon rich particles (carbonaceous material). These samples found 17 different elements in the dust particles, which included (but was not limited to) sodium (Na), manganese (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca).^[3]

The dust supplied from the Sahara to the subtropical North Atlantic contains a large amount of iron compared with other sources of dust to the ocean. The dust also contains aluminum, which is not a nutrient needed for primary production, but can be used as a tracer of where the dust came from.^[15] Dust from the Sahara also supplies phosphorus and silica to surface waters. Dust has also been shown to carry sulfur, however, this is not well understood.^[16]

Biological properties

Saharan dust provides marine ecosystems with important nutrients for primary production . Iron is a necessary micronutrient for photosynthesis in marine primary producers such as phytoplankton. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most of the dust brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require an organic molecule called a ligand to help dissolve the iron so that organisms can use it for photosynthesis.^[7]

Microorganisms living on particles can be transported away from their original habitat when dust is picked up and blown away.^[17] Sometimes, these organisms survive, and can grow where the dust has landed, impacting local ecosystems. One example is on Mont Blanc in the Alp’s, bordering France, Italy, and Switzerland, where snow-colonizing bacteria was on the dust particles.^[18] There has also been studies where bacteria from Saharan dust causing sickness in corals in the Caribbean.^[19]

Solubility and bioavailability

Factors impacting Saharan dust dissolution & iron solubility

While Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, only a small amount of that iron (~0.4 - 0.5%) is actually soluble in water.^[4]^[20] The dissolution of Saharan dust in the world's oceans and the solubility of the iron it delivers depend on a variety of factors, including particle size, mineral composition, temperature, pH, and the presence or absence of organic matter.

Particle size

The large surface area of the particles which make up Saharan dust plays a role in its dissolution. Saharan dust transported over long distances is primarily composed of very small particles called aerosols.^[21] Smaller particles have a larger surface area per unit mass than larger particles.^[5] Once Saharan dust settles into a body of water, having a larger surface area increases the contact the dust has with surrounding water, causing it to dissolve faster than larger particles would. This effect is described by a variant of the Kelvin Equation.^[5]

Mineral composition

Mineral composition plays a large role in the dissolution of Saharan dust. Minerals in aerosolized dust have typically been modified while in the atmosphere to be more soluble than material in soils.^[21]^[6] Some processes known to modify iron to more soluble forms in the atmosphere are acidic reactions and photochemistry.^[6]^[22] Iron-containing minerals such as clays, feldspars, and iron oxides are commonly found in Saharan dust.^[21]^[23] These minerals do not show the same patterns of dissolution; Clays contained within Saharan dust tend to show higher fractional solubility than iron oxides.^[21] Since these minerals show different solubility and dissolution properties, changes in the relative amounts of these minerals and other forms of iron in Saharan dust can alter the amount of the dust that will dissolve.

Temperature and pH

The solubility of many salts and minerals increases as temperature increases.^[24] As a result, Saharan dust is typically more soluble in regions with higher temperatures.

pH helps determine the solubility of metal-containing materials. At low pH (acidic conditions), iron is typically more soluble than it is at higher pH (basic conditions).^[25] This pH effect has been directly observed with Saharan dust iron solubility, as the dust tends to be more soluble in acidic aerosols and rainwater than it is in the more basic surface ocean.^[4] This makes wet deposition containing Saharan dust an important delivery mechanism for soluble iron to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.^[4]^[26]

Organic stabilization of aerosolized and dissolved iron

Free aqueous iron is not very stable in non-acidic conditions; it tends to want to oxidize to form an iron oxide and precipitate out of solution.^[25] Some types of organic matter can help stabilize iron by binding to the iron and preventing the formation of relatively insoluble iron oxides. These organic molecules are called ligands. Different functional groups and heteroatoms in organic molecules contribute differently to the molecules iron-binding activity. Heteroatoms such as oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and nitrogen (N) can increase an organic molecule's iron-binding capacity; the presence of organic matter containing O and/or S and/or N can increase the solubility of iron contained in aerosols.^[27] Carboxyl groups in particular have been noted for increasing ligand-like activity of organic matter in aerosols.^[28]^[27] Other functional groups known to contribute to ligand-like properties in aerosols include ethers, esters, and amines.^[27] Aerosols containing more of these ligands have higher percentages of soluble iron than aerosols that have less or no ligands. Saharan dust aerosols contain lower amounts of these ligands, which contributes to the low solubility of iron from Saharan dust.^[27]^[28] Saharan aerosol organic matter tends to contain more carbohydrate-like material, which does not tend to have strong ligand activity.^[28]

Ligands in the surface ocean are varied in molecular structure and include compound classes such as porphyrins and siderophores.^[29] These molecules are generally produced by marine bacteria or phytoplankton to obtain metals in regions where metal concentrations are low.^[30]^[31] Other ligands in the ocean are produced as organic matter breaks down to form humic acids.^[32] These humic acids, as well as oxalate, malonate, and tartrate, have been shown to specifically increase the solubility of iron contained in Saharan dust.^[33]

Bioavailability of Saharan dust-derived iron

Generally, marine bacteria and phytoplankton require some form of dissolved iron to meet their iron needs. Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the oceans, but most of this iron is insoluble.^[4]^[20] Therefore, it can generally be stated that factors which increase the solubility of Saharan dust (small particle sizes, clay-like mineral composition, higher temperatures, lower pH, presence of organic ligands) subsequently increase the bioavailability of iron to these organisms. However, the concept of bioavailability is a bit more nuanced than this statement implies.

Organismal preferences for different forms of iron can be complex. In a study comparing two distinct bacterioplankton communities and their uptake of iron bound to different ligands, the two communities were found to utilize different forms of bound iron.^[29] In this study, organisms from an area with abundant iron seemed to prefer iron bound to ligands such as phaeophytin but not ligands such as pheophorbide (though both are porphyrin-like ligands), while organisms from an iron-depleted region preferred inorganic unbound iron or iron bound to chlorin e₆ (another porphyrin-like molecule).^[29] In other cases, organisms have been documented to produce organic molecules which increase the bioavailability of iron as an iron-acquisition strategy.^[30] Other organisms, when subjected to grazing pressure, produce ligands which decrease the bioavailability of iron to themselves and other species of phytoplankton.^[34] The bioavailability of Saharan dust-derived iron, therefore, depends on the kinds of organisms present to use that iron and the form of iron available in solution.

Saharan dust trajectory

The meteorology in the Sahara is affected by the Sahel climate. This meteorology condition will determine the direction, speed, altitude, trajectory, distance travel, and duration of Saharan dust in the surrounding regions.^[35] The trajectory of Saharan Dust is measured by the visibility of Saharan Dust plume which can be detected by forecasters. Scientists monitor the plume using data from several satellites, such as GOES-16, NOAA-20, and the NOAA/NASA Suomi-NPP,^[36] where others use in-situ monitoring such as Aerosol Robotic NETwork (AERONET)^[37] and radiometric measurements such as Terra Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer (MISR), Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar, and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) with Eulerian and Lagrangian approach.^[38] Since the 2000's, The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model (HYSPLIT) can be used to track the back trajectory of air masses, dust dispersion and deposition.

Saharan dust can travel over large distances through the troposphere. The trajectory of Saharan dust is divided into three categories.^[39] The westward trajectory, also known as transatlantic transport, reaches the Gulf of Guinea,^[40] the Caribbean Island, the United States of America, and South America.^[38]^[41] The northward trajectory is toward the Mediterranean and southern Europe and can sometimes extend further north to Scandinavia.^[8] The last one is the eastward trajectory to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East.^[42] Furthermore, Saharan dust can experience transcontinental transport to Japan via the easterly trajectory where about 50% of the dust particles come from Saharan dust.^[9] The estimation of the dust deposition from these trajectories is 170 Tg/yr in the Atlantic, 25 Tg/yr in in Mediterranean and 5 Tg/yr in Caribbean.^[35]

Formation of Saharan dust

In order for Saharan dust to impact systems around the globe, it first must become airborne and leave the Sahara. The Bodélé Depression is one of the most significant sites of Saharan dust formation.^[43] The depression is composed of dried lake beds now covered by dunes.^[44] Winds moving at speeds between 6 and 16 m/s through this region pick up loose sediment, and transport the dust away from the Sahara.^[45] Higher wind speeds tend to generate larger dust events in this region.^[45] The highest output of dust from this region occurs from spring through fall.^[45]

The Westward trajectory

The westward trajectory is referred as the transatlantic transport, which is the dispersion of Saharan Dust to the west through the Atlantic Ocean. The westward trajectory is the most voluminous, and makes up 30-60% of the total annual Saharan Dust, supplying 60% of the dust to the Gulf of Guinea and 28% to the Atlantic Ocean.^[47] This trajectory happens during the northern hemisphere winter and summer. The winter season in the northern hemisphere happens in the end of November until the middle of the March where the westward wind shifts to the northeasterly trade wind (Harmattan season).^[48] This trajectory is mostly influenced by the the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which links to the monsoon flow and results in the raising of Saharan Dust plume.^[47] Due to this convection, this wind brings the dust from the Sahara to the Gulf of Guinea and the resulting dense fog in that surrounding area.^[40] Subsequently, in summer, the wind shifts westward, which transports Saharan Dust toward the Atlantic Ocean. The atmospheric layer in this region is the Saharan Air Layer, which is typically dry and hot during this season. This wind brings Sahara Dust to South America and continues to the Amazon Basin.^[49] In addition, the peak of this season between July and August brings the dust from the western part of the Sahara Desert directly to the Caribbean islands and the United States of America.^[41] Saharan Dust takes about 5–7 days to reach the Caribbean, however, depending on the climate and the magnitude of Saharan Dust plume, it can be transported further for up to 10 days.^[2] On June 25, 2020, NASA reported a gigantic Saharan Dust Aerosol Blanket which was called the "Godzilla dust plume"^[50] over the Atlantic Ocean, which spread 5,000 miles across the Atlantic ocean from 15–25 June 2020. This was reported as the largest plume over the past 50–60 years period.^[51]

The Northward trajectory

The northward trajectory is correlated with the southerly winds that brings Saharan Dust to the Mediterranean Basin and further to the Southern Europe. This wind is called Sirocco, a southerly wind that originates from the Sahara desert and commonly occurs during autumn and spring. This trajectory reaches a peak in March and in November, where Saharan Dust can reach up to Southern Europe.^[53] However, when rain occurs, the dust will deposit quickly in the Mediterranean basin. Over the year, the least active months of Saharan Dust dispersal for the whole Mediterranean is December.

The Eastwards trajectory

The eastward trajectory originates from the eastern Sahara Desert and expands from the Northward Trajectory. The lifting from the northward trajectory is primarily associated with the occurrence of southerly flow ahead of synoptic frontal systems traveling eastward across the Mediterranean or originating in the northern Sahara and moving northeastward.^[54] This event usually happens during Spring and needs 2–4 days to reach the Central Mediterranean and move towards the Middle East.^[2]

The transcontinental trajectory

The transcontinental trajectory refers to the movement of Saharan Dust passing over Asia, where the last point is Japan. The Asian Dust event in Japan is named "Kosa" (means "Yellow Sand" as Aeolian dust in Japanese), and used to be correlated with the dust originating from the arid region of China and Mongolia.^[55] However, on March 2003, the Kosa had no correlation with dust even in China and Mongolia. It is reported that the dust came from Saharan Dust and traveled for 9–10 days to reach Japan.^[9]

Impacts on ocean and land ecosystems

Stimulation of primary production

The nutrients that Saharan dust provides to marine ecosystems are important for primary production. Iron is a necessary micronutrient for photosynthesis in marine primary producers such as phytoplankton. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most dust that is brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require organic molecules called ligands to help make the iron usable for photosynthesis.^[7]

One group of primary producers in the Atlantic, is called diazotrophs. Diazotrophs show increased need for the micronutrient iron since they perform nitrogen fixation^[15] and the enzyme nitrogenase required for nitrogen fixing contains iron.^[16]

North Atlantic Ocean circulation

The presence of Saharan mineral dust in the Atlantic Ocean can attenuate solar radiation, reducing the amount of shortwave radiation that reaches the sea surface and decreasing the sea surface temperature (SST).^[56] This has been shown to account for up to 35% of the inter-annual variability in summer SST over the North Atlantic.^[57] A more highly concentrated Saharan Air Layer (SAL) has also been linked with bringing greater precipitation to the northern tropical Atlantic by way of shifting the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) north by a few degrees.^[58]

With the presence of dust controlling a lot of the variability in SST, major ocean circulation patterns can also be influenced by dust accumulation.^[59] Decreased SST can upset the stability of the ocean stratification, leading to enhanced vertical mixing which can in turn influence the behavior of the greater geostrophic flow field. Since Saharan Dust originates on the eastern side of the Atlantic basin, this is where the shortwave radiation flux is reduced the most, hence it is the origin of the largest anomalous ocean conditions. These anomalies slowly advect westward across the basin, leading to basin-scale zonal pressure gradients that further change the basin-wide circulation.^[59] These gyre and basin circulation impacts happen on the scale of several years^[59] - large dust storm events can have impacts on the circulation years later.

Desert dust across the Mediterranean

There are no clear dust sources in Europe, however, desert dust is occasionally discovered in various areas of Europe.^[60]^[61] The transport of the desert dust in the Mediterranean region depends on the seasonal variation of dust sources from Africa and the seasonal changes of the atmospheric circulation (see previous Saharan Dust Trajectory section).

Evidence of dust transport from Africa over Northern Italy shows that the composition of particulate matter changed considerably due to the significant increase of crustal element concentration, e.g., Al, Si, Ti, K, Fe and Ca, however, concentrations of anthropogenic elements remain constant.^[62] Saharan Dust is a major source of atmospheric aerosol over the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is the most important sedimentary contributor to the Mediterranean Basin.^[10] These aerosols play a crucial role in supplying macro- and micro- nutrients to its low-nutrient and low-chlorophyll water, enhancing primary production and affecting the bacterioplankton community structure.^[63] The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is extremely oligotrophic ^[64] and is greatly influenced by desert dusts. In the past decade, the increase of temperature and decrease of precipitation at the Eastern Mediterranean Sea cause soil drying,^[65] leading to increased dust emission. Due to climate change, this process is expected to continue in the future and contribute more micro- and macro- nutrients into the oligotrophic water.^[66]

Amazon basin

The majority of soil in the Amazon Basin, home of the Amazon rainforest, which accounts for about half of the worlds remaining rainforest, is phosphorus deficient.^[67] However, studies have found that phosphorus is the dominant fertility factor in the Amazon Basin when it comes to tree growth,^[68] so phosphorus deficiency could limit tree growth. Estimated turnover rates of phosphorus within soil in the Amazon Basin compared to deposition rates of phosphorus from Saharan dust indicate that the long term health and productivity of the Amazon rainforest is dependent on the supply of phosphorus from Saharan dust.^[69] While the relative amount of phosphorus deposition from the atmosphere into the Amazon Basin due to Saharan dust is relatively small (roughly 13%) compared to non-dust sources, such as biogenic aerosols and smoke particles, it is comparable to the hydrological loss of phosphorus.^[9] Without the input of phosphorus from Saharan dust, this hydrological loss could eventually deplete the Amazon Basin of its phosphorus content.^[9]

Dust and climate

Saharan dust emissions and transports are sensitive to weather and climate conditions in the source regions. Dense dust clouds reduce the ocean surface exposure to sunlight, hence, reducing the ocean surface heating and therefore influencing the air-sea transfer of water vapor and latent heat, which are critical to climate.^[70] When the dust suspends over the Tropical Atlantic, the reduction of heating could contribute to the interhemispheric tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperature anomaly patterns that are related to the Soudano-Sahel drought.^[71] Hence, increased dust could lead to longer or more intense drought. In addition, the West African rainfall is well-correlated with the frequency and the intensity of the Atlantic hurricanes, suggesting less hurricane activities during dry phases.^[72] Some of the dustiest years in Barbados coincide with the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events,^[73] however, it is still an open question of how global warming will influence on dust emissions in the Sahara.

Transport of microbial communities

Saharan dust storms can transport particulate matter that includes different local microorganisms over continental scales, ultimately depositing them where those microorganisms are not natively found.^[17] Research shows that significant portions of microbial communities can be transported over large distances in these dust storms.^[17]^[74] These microbial communities are highly stress-resistant and can contain destructive fungal and bacterial pathogens.^[17] Within Africa, but up to thousands of kilometers away from the dust source, high Saharan dust concentrations have been correlated to increased cases of asthma, bronchitis, meningitis, and acute respiratory infections.^[74]

Human impacts

While Saharan dust may fertilize the ocean and land, human exposure to this desert dust combined with organic matter can cause potential infections of the lungs.^[12] Studies have shown that Saharan dust may contain toxic biological allergens and irritants.^[13] It is also possible that non-biological compounds in dust can generate adverse health effects, including respiratory (e.g., asthma, tracheitis, pneumonia, allergic rhinitis and silicosis), cardiovascular (e.g., stroke), and cardiopulmonary diseases. In addition, conjunctivitis, skin irritations, meningococcal disease, and coccidioidomycosis are found to be related to dust storms.^[14] For long periods of time, the dust concentration in some areas exceeds several times the maximum levels suggested from the World Health Organization.^[75] The concentration of particulate matters (PM) also elevates to hazardous level that could threaten human health and early life. Exposure of PM can cause neonatal mortality either through mother exposure or through increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in neonates.

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@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 {{Cleanup reorganize|date=February 2021}}
 {{Lead missing|date=February 2021}}
+{{Orphan|date=February 2021}}
 }}
 = Saharan Dust =
 == Introduction ==
 [[File:Sahara satellite hires.jpg|thumb|369x369px|Satellite image of the Sahara Desert, taken by NASA]]
-Saharan Dust is categorized as an [[Aeolian processes|aeolian]] [[mineral dust]] which comes from the [[Sahara|Sahara desert]], which is the largest hot desert in the world. The desert spans just over 9 million square kilometers, from the Atlantic ocean to the red sea, from the Mediterranean sea to the Niger River valley and the Sudan region in the south.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cook|first=Kerry H.|last2=Vizy|first2=Edward K.|date=2015|title=Detection and Analysis of an Amplified Warming of the Sahara Desert|url=|journal=Journal of Climate|volume=28 (16)|pages=|via=}}</ref> The Sahara is the largest source of aeolian [[dust]] in the world with annual production rates of about 400-700 x 10<sup>6</sup> tons/year, which is almost half of all aeolian [[desert]] inputs to the ocean.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Middleton|first=N. J.|last2=Goudie|first2=A. S.|date=2001|title=Saharan dust: sources and trajectories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00013|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|volume=26|issue=2|pages=165–181|doi=10.1111/1475-5661.00013|issn=0020-2754|via=}}</ref> [[Sahara]]<nowiki/>n dust is often produced by natural process such as wind storms, and doesn’t appear to be heavily impacted by human activities.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Kandler|first=Konrad|last2=Benker|first2=Nathalie|last3=Bundke|first3=Ulrich|last4=Cuevas|first4=Emilio|last5=Ebert|first5=Martin|last6=Knippertz|first6=Peter|last7=Rodríguez|first7=Sergio|last8=Schütz|first8=Lothar|last9=Weinbruch|first9=Stephan|date=2007|title=Chemical composition and complex refractive index of Saharan Mineral Dust at Izaña, Tenerife (Spain) derived by electron microscopy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231007006061|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=41|issue=37|pages=8058–8074|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.047|via=}}</ref>  In most cases marine bacteria and phytoplankton require small amounts of the [[micronutrient]] [[iron]], which can be supplied via the dust transport of Saharan dust. The dust delivered to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has a small percentage of dissolvable iron,<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Theodosi|first=C.|last2=Markaki|first2=Z.|last3=Mihalopoulos|first3=N.|date=2010|title=Iron speciation, solubility and temporal variability in wet and dry deposition in the Eastern Mediterranean|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304420308001096|journal=Marine Chemistry|language=en|volume=120|issue=1-4|pages=100–107|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2008.05.004|via=}}</ref> however, since so much iron is supplied to the regions, even with a low soluble percentage, Saharan dust is a large source of iron to these regions. Factors that contribute to the dust [[solubility]] are the size of the dust particles, [[Mineral|minerals]] in the dust, [[temperature]] of the water, and the [[pH]] of the water.<ref name=":10">{{Citation|last=Alshora|first=Doaa Hasan|title=Nanotechnology from particle size reduction to enhancing aqueous solubility|date=2016|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780323428613000066|work=Surface Chemistry of Nanobiomaterials|pages=163–191|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-42861-3.00006-6|isbn=978-0-323-42861-3|access-date=2020-11-07|last2=Ibrahim|first2=Mohamed Abbas|last3=Alanazi|first3=Fars Kaed}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Ravelo-Pérez|first=L.M.|last2=Rodríguez|first2=S.|last3=Galindo|first3=L.|last4=García|first4=M.I.|last5=Alastuey|first5=A.|last6=López-Solano|first6=J.|date=2016|title=Soluble iron dust export in the high altitude Saharan Air Layer|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.030|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=133|pages=49–59|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.030|issn=1352-2310|via=}}</ref> The presence of organic molecules called [[Ligand|ligands]] can also increase the solubility of iron and make it more accessible for organisms to use for [[primary production|primary production.]]<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Tagliabue|first=Alessandro|last2=Williams|first2=Richard G.|last3=Rogan|first3=Nicholas|last4=Achterberg|first4=Eric P.|last5=Boyd|first5=Philip W.|date=2014-10-28|title=A ventilation-based framework to explain the regeneration-scavenging balance of iron in the ocean: Dissolved Iron Framework|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014GL061066|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=41|issue=20|pages=7227–7236|doi=10.1002/2014GL061066}}</ref>
+Saharan Dust is categorized as an [[Aeolian processes|aeolian]] [[mineral dust]] which comes from the [[Sahara|Sahara desert]], which is the largest hot desert in the world. The desert spans just over 9 million square kilometers, from the Atlantic ocean to the red sea, from the Mediterranean sea to the Niger River valley and the Sudan region in the south.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cook|first=Kerry H.|last2=Vizy|first2=Edward K.|date=2015|title=Detection and Analysis of an Amplified Warming of the Sahara Desert|url=|journal=Journal of Climate|volume=28 (16)|pages=|via=}}</ref> The Sahara is the largest source of aeolian [[dust]] in the world with annual production rates of about 400-700 x 10<sup>6</sup> tons/year, which is almost half of all aeolian [[desert]] inputs to the ocean.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Middleton|first=N. J.|last2=Goudie|first2=A. S.|date=2001|title=Saharan dust: sources and trajectories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00013|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|volume=26|issue=2|pages=165–181|doi=10.1111/1475-5661.00013|issn=0020-2754|via=}}</ref> [[Sahara]]<nowiki/>n dust is often produced by natural process such as wind storms, and doesn’t appear to be heavily impacted by human activities.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Kandler|first=Konrad|last2=Benker|first2=Nathalie|last3=Bundke|first3=Ulrich|last4=Cuevas|first4=Emilio|last5=Ebert|first5=Martin|last6=Knippertz|first6=Peter|last7=Rodríguez|first7=Sergio|last8=Schütz|first8=Lothar|last9=Weinbruch|first9=Stephan|date=2007|title=Chemical composition and complex refractive index of Saharan Mineral Dust at Izaña, Tenerife (Spain) derived by electron microscopy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231007006061|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=41|issue=37|pages=8058–8074|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.047|via=}}</ref>  In most cases marine bacteria and phytoplankton require small amounts of the [[micronutrient]] [[iron]], which can be supplied via the dust transport of Saharan dust. The dust delivered to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea has a small percentage of dissolvable iron,<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Theodosi|first=C.|last2=Markaki|first2=Z.|last3=Mihalopoulos|first3=N.|date=2010|title=Iron speciation, solubility and temporal variability in wet and dry deposition in the Eastern Mediterranean|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304420308001096|journal=Marine Chemistry|language=en|volume=120|issue=1-4|pages=100–107|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2008.05.004|via=}}</ref> however, since so much iron is supplied to the regions, even with a low soluble percentage, Saharan dust is a large source of iron to these regions. Factors that contribute to the dust [[solubility]] are the size of the dust particles, [[mineral]]s in the dust, [[temperature]] of the water, and the [[pH]] of the water.<ref name=":10">{{Citation|last=Alshora|first=Doaa Hasan|title=Nanotechnology from particle size reduction to enhancing aqueous solubility|date=2016|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780323428613000066|work=Surface Chemistry of Nanobiomaterials|pages=163–191|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-42861-3.00006-6|isbn=978-0-323-42861-3|access-date=2020-11-07|last2=Ibrahim|first2=Mohamed Abbas|last3=Alanazi|first3=Fars Kaed}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Ravelo-Pérez|first=L.M.|last2=Rodríguez|first2=S.|last3=Galindo|first3=L.|last4=García|first4=M.I.|last5=Alastuey|first5=A.|last6=López-Solano|first6=J.|date=2016|title=Soluble iron dust export in the high altitude Saharan Air Layer|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.030|journal=Atmospheric Environment|volume=133|pages=49–59|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.030|issn=1352-2310|via=}}</ref> The presence of organic molecules called [[ligand]]s can also increase the solubility of iron and make it more accessible for organisms to use for [[primary production]].<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal|last=Tagliabue|first=Alessandro|last2=Williams|first2=Richard G.|last3=Rogan|first3=Nicholas|last4=Achterberg|first4=Eric P.|last5=Boyd|first5=Philip W.|date=2014-10-28|title=A ventilation-based framework to explain the regeneration-scavenging balance of iron in the ocean: Dissolved Iron Framework|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014GL061066|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=41|issue=20|pages=7227–7236|doi=10.1002/2014GL061066}}</ref>
-Saharan dust will travel in different directions due to different wind events and wind directions. It has been found to travel to the [[Amazon basin]], [[Scandinavia|Scandinavia,]]<ref name=":24" /> [[Japan|Japan,]]<ref name=":9" /> and other regions. The dust supplied to the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]<ref name=":25" /> brings limiting nutrients that help to boost primary production. For the Amazon basin, which is limited in [[phosphorus]] in much of the soil in the basin, Saharan dust is a main source of phosphorus. This dust has also impacted ecosystems in the [[Southeastern United States]] and the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] by supplying limiting nutrients to ecosystems, and in some cases promoting soil development on land.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Aarons|first=S.M.|last2=Aciego|first2=S.M.|last3=Gleason|first3=J.D.|date=2013|title=Variable HfSrNd radiogenic isotopic compositions in a Saharan dust storm over the Atlantic: Implications for dust flux to oceans, ice sheets and the terrestrial biosphere|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0009254113001745|journal=Chemical Geology|language=en|volume=349-350|pages=18–26|doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.04.010|via=}}</ref> Saharan dust has even been found on [[Glacier|glaciers]] and studied to examine [[atmospheric circulation]].<ref name=":1" /> Human impacts of Saharan dust can include respiratory difficulties<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":27" /> and other adverse health conditions during dust storms in the surrounding regions.<ref name=":28" />
+Saharan dust will travel in different directions due to different wind events and wind directions. It has been found to travel to the [[Amazon basin]], [[Scandinavia]],<ref name=":24" /> [[Japan]],<ref name=":9" /> and other regions. The dust supplied to the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]<ref name=":25" /> brings limiting nutrients that help to boost primary production. For the Amazon basin, which is limited in [[phosphorus]] in much of the soil in the basin, Saharan dust is a main source of phosphorus. This dust has also impacted ecosystems in the [[Southeastern United States]] and the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] by supplying limiting nutrients to ecosystems, and in some cases promoting soil development on land.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Aarons|first=S.M.|last2=Aciego|first2=S.M.|last3=Gleason|first3=J.D.|date=2013|title=Variable HfSrNd radiogenic isotopic compositions in a Saharan dust storm over the Atlantic: Implications for dust flux to oceans, ice sheets and the terrestrial biosphere|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0009254113001745|journal=Chemical Geology|language=en|volume=349-350|pages=18–26|doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.04.010|via=}}</ref> Saharan dust has even been found on [[glacier]]s and studied to examine [[atmospheric circulation]].<ref name=":1" /> Human impacts of Saharan dust can include respiratory difficulties<ref name=":26" /><ref name=":27" /> and other adverse health conditions during dust storms in the surrounding regions.<ref name=":28" />
 == Properties of Saharan dust ==
 === Physical properties ===
-Saharan dust particles from a 2005 dust storm event were analyzed, and the diameter of particles ranged from 100 [[Nanometre|nanometers]] (1nanometer= 1 x 10<sup>-9</sup> meters) to 50 [[Micrometre|micrometers]] (1micrometer= 1 x10<sup>-6</sup> meters). It appeared that most of the particles were coated in [[Sulfate|sulfates]], with the average coating on the silicate particles being 60 nanometers thick.<ref name=":0" /> In the atmosphere, particles can act as [[Aerosol|aerosols]], which can help deflect sunlight back out into space. The absorption of sunlight increases with the decreasing particle size. For the reflectively ([[albedo]]) of the particles, all samples varied between 0.945 and 0.955. Values close to 1 indicate that these particles are highly reflective.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kandler|first=Konrad|last2=Benker|first2=Nathalie|last3=Bundke|first3=Ulrich|last4=Cuevas|first4=Emilio|last5=Ebert|first5=Martin|last6=Knippertz|first6=Peter|last7=Rodríguez|first7=Sergio|last8=Schütz|first8=Lothar|last9=Weinbruch|first9=Stephan|date=2007|title=Chemical composition and complex refractive index of Saharan Mineral Dust at Izaña, Tenerife (Spain) derived by electron microscopy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231007006061|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=41|issue=37|pages=8058–8074|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.047|via=}}</ref> The size of Saharan dust particles is largely determined by the distance from the source. The first particles to leave the atmosphere and return to the surface will be the biggest and coarsest particles. As the particle’s travel further away, the smaller particles will remain.<ref name=":1" />
+Saharan dust particles from a 2005 dust storm event were analyzed, and the diameter of particles ranged from 100 [[Nanometre|nanometers]] (1nanometer= 1 x 10<sup>−9</sup> meters) to 50 [[Micrometre|micrometers]] (1micrometer= 1 x10<sup>−6</sup> meters). It appeared that most of the particles were coated in [[sulfate]]s, with the average coating on the silicate particles being 60 nanometers thick.<ref name=":04"/> In the atmosphere, particles can act as [[aerosol]]s, which can help deflect sunlight back out into space. The absorption of sunlight increases with the decreasing particle size. For the reflectively ([[albedo]]) of the particles, all samples varied between 0.945 and 0.955. Values close to 1 indicate that these particles are highly reflective.<ref name=":04">{{Cite journal|last=Kandler|first=Konrad|last2=Benker|first2=Nathalie|last3=Bundke|first3=Ulrich|last4=Cuevas|first4=Emilio|last5=Ebert|first5=Martin|last6=Knippertz|first6=Peter|last7=Rodríguez|first7=Sergio|last8=Schütz|first8=Lothar|last9=Weinbruch|first9=Stephan|date=2007|title=Chemical composition and complex refractive index of Saharan Mineral Dust at Izaña, Tenerife (Spain) derived by electron microscopy|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231007006061|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=41|issue=37|pages=8058–8074|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.06.047|via=}}</ref> The size of Saharan dust particles is largely determined by the distance from the source. The first particles to leave the atmosphere and return to the surface will be the biggest and coarsest particles. As the particle’s travel further away, the smaller particles will remain.<ref name=":1" />
 === Chemical properties ===
-In the samples of Saharan dust from 2005, the average composition of the dust particles was: 64% [[Silicate|silicates]], 14% [[Sulfate|sulfates]], 6% [[quartz]], 5% high [[calcium]] particles, 1% iron rich ([[hematite]]), 1% soot, and 9% other carbon rich particles (carbonaceous material). These samples found 17 different elements in the dust particles, which included (but was not limited to) [[sodium]] (Na), [[manganese]] (Mg), [[Aluminium|aluminum]] (Al), [[silicon]] (Si), [[iron]] (Fe), [[cobalt]] (Co), [[copper]] (Cu), [[potassium]] (K), and [[calcium]] (Ca).<ref name=":0" />
+In the samples of Saharan dust from 2005, the average composition of the dust particles was: 64% [[silicate]]s, 14% [[sulfate]]s, 6% [[quartz]], 5% high [[calcium]] particles, 1% iron rich ([[hematite]]), 1% soot, and 9% other carbon rich particles (carbonaceous material). These samples found 17 different elements in the dust particles, which included (but was not limited to) [[sodium]] (Na), [[manganese]] (Mg), [[Aluminium|aluminum]] (Al), [[silicon]] (Si), [[iron]] (Fe), [[cobalt]] (Co), [[copper]] (Cu), [[potassium]] (K), and [[calcium]] (Ca).<ref name=":04"/>
-The dust supplied from the Sahara to the subtropical North Atlantic contains a large amount of iron compared with other sources of dust to the ocean. The dust also contains aluminum, which is not a nutrient needed for [[primary production]], but can be used as a tracer of where the dust came from.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schlosser|first=C.|last2=Klar|first2=J. K.|last3=Wake|first3=B. D.|last4=Snow|first4=J. T.|last5=Honey|first5=D. J.|last6=Woodward|first6=E. M. S.|last7=Lohan|first7=M. C.|last8=Achterberg|first8=E. P.|last9=Moore|first9=C. M.|date=2014-01-28|title=Seasonal ITCZ migration dynamically controls the location of the (sub)tropical Atlantic biogeochemical divide|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1318670111|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=111|issue=4|pages=1438–1442|doi=10.1073/pnas.1318670111|issn=0027-8424|pmc=PMC3910581|pmid=24367112}}</ref> Dust from the Sahara also supplies [[phosphorus]] and [[Silica cycle|silica]] to surface waters. Dust has also been shown to carry [[sulfur]], however, this is not well understood.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|last=Schlesinger|first=William H.|title=The Biosphere|date=2013|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-385874-0.00005-4|work=Biogeochemistry|pages=135–172|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-385874-0|access-date=2020-11-05|last2=Bernhardt|first2=Emily S.}}</ref>
+The dust supplied from the Sahara to the subtropical North Atlantic contains a large amount of iron compared with other sources of dust to the ocean. The dust also contains aluminum, which is not a nutrient needed for [[primary production]], but can be used as a tracer of where the dust came from.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Schlosser|first=C.|last2=Klar|first2=J. K.|last3=Wake|first3=B. D.|last4=Snow|first4=J. T.|last5=Honey|first5=D. J.|last6=Woodward|first6=E. M. S.|last7=Lohan|first7=M. C.|last8=Achterberg|first8=E. P.|last9=Moore|first9=C. M.|date=2014-01-28|title=Seasonal ITCZ migration dynamically controls the location of the (sub)tropical Atlantic biogeochemical divide|url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1318670111|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=111|issue=4|pages=1438–1442|doi=10.1073/pnas.1318670111|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3910581|pmid=24367112}}</ref> Dust from the Sahara also supplies [[phosphorus]] and [[Silica cycle|silica]] to surface waters. Dust has also been shown to carry [[sulfur]], however, this is not well understood.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|last=Schlesinger|first=William H.|title=The Biosphere|date=2013|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-385874-0.00005-4|work=Biogeochemistry|pages=135–172|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-385874-0|access-date=2020-11-05|last2=Bernhardt|first2=Emily S.}}</ref>
 === Biological properties ===
-Saharan dust provides [[Marine ecosystem|marine ecosystems]] with important nutrients for primary production . Iron is a necessary micronutrient for [[photosynthesis]] in [[Marine primary production|marine primary producers]] such as [[phytoplankton]]. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most of the dust brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require an [[Organic compound|organic molecule]] called a [[ligand]] to help dissolve the iron so that organisms can use it for photosynthesis.<ref name=":23" />
+Saharan dust provides [[marine ecosystem]]s with important nutrients for primary production . Iron is a necessary micronutrient for [[photosynthesis]] in [[Marine primary production|marine primary producers]] such as [[phytoplankton]]. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most of the dust brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require an [[Organic compound|organic molecule]] called a [[ligand]] to help dissolve the iron so that organisms can use it for photosynthesis.<ref name=":23" />
-[[Microorganism|Microorganisms]] living on particles can be transported away from their original habitat when dust is picked up and blown away.<ref name=":7" /> Sometimes, these organisms survive, and can grow where the dust has landed, impacting local ecosystems. One example is on [[Mont Blanc]] in the Alp’s, bordering France, Italy, and Switzerland, where snow-colonizing [[bacteria]] was on the dust particles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuvochina|first=M. S.|last2=Alekhina|first2=I. A.|last3=Normand|first3=P.|last4=Petit|first4=J. -R.|last5=Bulat|first5=S. A.|date=2011|title=Three events of Saharan dust deposition on the Mont Blanc glacier associated with different snow-colonizing bacterial phylotypes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S0026261711010061|journal=Microbiology|language=en|volume=80|issue=1|pages=125–131|doi=10.1134/S0026261711010061|issn=0026-2617|via=}}</ref> There has also been studies where bacteria from Saharan dust causing sickness in corals in the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Garrison|first=Virginia H.|last2=Shinn|first2=Eugene A.|last3=Foreman|first3=William T.|last4=Griffin|first4=Dale W.|last5=Holmes|first5=Charles W.|last6=Kellogg|first6=Christina A.|last7=Majewski|first7=Michael S.|last8=Richardson|first8=Laurie L.|last9=Ritchie|first9=Kim B.|last10=Smith|first10=Garriet W.|date=2003|title=African and Asian Dust: From Desert Soils to Coral Reefs|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/53/5/469-480/241414|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=53|issue=5|pages=469|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0469:AAADFD]2.0.CO;2|issn=0006-3568}}</ref>
+[[Microorganism]]s living on particles can be transported away from their original habitat when dust is picked up and blown away.<ref name=":7" /> Sometimes, these organisms survive, and can grow where the dust has landed, impacting local ecosystems. One example is on [[Mont Blanc]] in the Alp’s, bordering France, Italy, and Switzerland, where snow-colonizing [[bacteria]] was on the dust particles.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chuvochina|first=M. S.|last2=Alekhina|first2=I. A.|last3=Normand|first3=P.|last4=Petit|first4=J. -R.|last5=Bulat|first5=S. A.|date=2011|title=Three events of Saharan dust deposition on the Mont Blanc glacier associated with different snow-colonizing bacterial phylotypes|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1134/S0026261711010061|journal=Microbiology|language=en|volume=80|issue=1|pages=125–131|doi=10.1134/S0026261711010061|issn=0026-2617|via=}}</ref> There has also been studies where bacteria from Saharan dust causing sickness in corals in the Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Garrison|first=Virginia H.|last2=Shinn|first2=Eugene A.|last3=Foreman|first3=William T.|last4=Griffin|first4=Dale W.|last5=Holmes|first5=Charles W.|last6=Kellogg|first6=Christina A.|last7=Majewski|first7=Michael S.|last8=Richardson|first8=Laurie L.|last9=Ritchie|first9=Kim B.|last10=Smith|first10=Garriet W.|date=2003|title=African and Asian Dust: From Desert Soils to Coral Reefs|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/53/5/469-480/241414|journal=BioScience|language=en|volume=53|issue=5|pages=469|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0469:AAADFD]2.0.CO;2|issn=0006-3568}}</ref>
 == Solubility and bioavailability ==
 === Factors impacting Saharan dust dissolution & iron solubility ===
 While Saharan dust delivers a large amount of iron to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, only a small amount of that iron (~0.4 - 0.5%) is actually soluble in water.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":19">{{Cite journal|last=Sedwick|first=Peter N.|last2=Sholkovitz|first2=Edward R.|last3=Church|first3=Thomas M.|date=2007|title=Impact of anthropogenic combustion emissions on the fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Evidence from the Sargasso Sea: FRACTIONAL SOLUBILITY OF AEROSOL IRON|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2007GC001586|journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems|language=en|volume=8|issue=10|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2007GC001586|via=}}</ref> The dissolution of Saharan dust in the world's oceans and the solubility of the iron it delivers depend on a variety of factors, including [[particle size]], mineral composition, temperature, pH, and the presence or absence of [[organic matter]].
 ==== Particle size ====
-The large surface area of the particles which make up Saharan dust plays a role in its [[Solvation|dissolution]]. Saharan dust transported over long distances is primarily composed of very small particles called [[Aerosol|aerosols]].<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Journet|first=Emilie|last2=Desboeufs|first2=Karine V.|last3=Caquineau|first3=Sandrine|last4=Colin|first4=Jean-Louis|date=2008|title=Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility: MINERALOGY AND DUST IRON SOLUBILITY|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2007GL031589|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=7|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2007GL031589|via=}}</ref> Smaller particles have a larger [[surface area]] per unit mass than larger particles.<ref name=":10" /> Once Saharan dust settles into a body of water, having a larger surface area increases the contact the dust has with surrounding water, causing it to dissolve faster than larger particles would. This effect is described by a variant of the [[Kelvin equation|Kelvin Equation.]]<ref name=":10" />
+The large surface area of the particles which make up Saharan dust plays a role in its [[Solvation|dissolution]]. Saharan dust transported over long distances is primarily composed of very small particles called [[aerosol]]s.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Journet|first=Emilie|last2=Desboeufs|first2=Karine V.|last3=Caquineau|first3=Sandrine|last4=Colin|first4=Jean-Louis|date=2008|title=Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility: MINERALOGY AND DUST IRON SOLUBILITY|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2007GL031589|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=35|issue=7|pages=n/a–n/a|doi=10.1029/2007GL031589|via=}}</ref> Smaller particles have a larger [[surface area]] per unit mass than larger particles.<ref name=":10" /> Once Saharan dust settles into a body of water, having a larger surface area increases the contact the dust has with surrounding water, causing it to dissolve faster than larger particles would. This effect is described by a variant of the [[Kelvin equation|Kelvin Equation.]]<ref name=":10" />
 ==== Mineral composition ====
-Mineral composition plays a large role in the dissolution of Saharan dust. Minerals in aerosolized dust have typically been modified while in the atmosphere to be more soluble than material in soils.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> Some processes known to modify iron to more soluble forms in the atmosphere are acidic reactions and [[photochemistry]].<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Longo|first=Amelia F.|last2=Feng|first2=Yan|last3=Lai|first3=Barry|last4=Landing|first4=William M.|last5=Shelley|first5=Rachel U.|last6=Nenes|first6=Athanasios|last7=Mihalopoulos|first7=Nikolaos|last8=Violaki|first8=Kalliopi|last9=Ingall|first9=Ellery D.|date=2016|title=Influence of Atmospheric Processes on the Solubility and Composition of Iron in Saharan Dust|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02605|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|language=en|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6912–6920|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02605|issn=0013-936X|via=}}</ref> Iron-containing minerals such as [[Clay|clays]], [[Feldspar|feldspars]], and [[Iron oxide|iron oxides]] are commonly found in Saharan dust.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reid|first=Elizabeth A.|date=2003|title=Characterization of African dust transported to Puerto Rico by individual particle and size segregated bulk analysis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2002JD002935|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|language=en|volume=108|issue=D19|pages=8591|doi=10.1029/2002JD002935|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> These minerals do not show the same patterns of dissolution; Clays contained within Saharan dust tend to show higher fractional solubility than iron oxides.<ref name=":11" /> Since these minerals show different solubility and dissolution properties, changes in the relative amounts of these minerals and other forms of iron in Saharan dust can alter the amount of the dust that will dissolve.
+Mineral composition plays a large role in the dissolution of Saharan dust. Minerals in aerosolized dust have typically been modified while in the atmosphere to be more soluble than material in soils.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":13" /> Some processes known to modify iron to more soluble forms in the atmosphere are acidic reactions and [[photochemistry]].<ref name=":13" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Longo|first=Amelia F.|last2=Feng|first2=Yan|last3=Lai|first3=Barry|last4=Landing|first4=William M.|last5=Shelley|first5=Rachel U.|last6=Nenes|first6=Athanasios|last7=Mihalopoulos|first7=Nikolaos|last8=Violaki|first8=Kalliopi|last9=Ingall|first9=Ellery D.|date=2016|title=Influence of Atmospheric Processes on the Solubility and Composition of Iron in Saharan Dust|url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.6b02605|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|language=en|volume=50|issue=13|pages=6912–6920|doi=10.1021/acs.est.6b02605|issn=0013-936X|via=}}</ref> Iron-containing minerals such as [[clay]]s, [[feldspar]]s, and [[iron oxide]]s are commonly found in Saharan dust.<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reid|first=Elizabeth A.|date=2003|title=Characterization of African dust transported to Puerto Rico by individual particle and size segregated bulk analysis|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2002JD002935|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|language=en|volume=108|issue=D19|pages=8591|doi=10.1029/2002JD002935|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> These minerals do not show the same patterns of dissolution; Clays contained within Saharan dust tend to show higher fractional solubility than iron oxides.<ref name=":11" /> Since these minerals show different solubility and dissolution properties, changes in the relative amounts of these minerals and other forms of iron in Saharan dust can alter the amount of the dust that will dissolve.
 ==== Temperature and pH ====
 The solubility of many salts and minerals increases as temperature increases.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kotz, John C.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/706384877|title=Chemistry & chemical reactivity|date=2012|publisher=Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning|others=Treichel, Paul., Townsend, John Raymond.|isbn=978-0-8400-4828-8|edition=8th ed|location=Belmont, CA|oclc=706384877}}</ref> As a result, Saharan dust is typically more soluble in regions with higher temperatures.
 pH helps determine the solubility of metal-containing materials. At low pH (acidic conditions), iron is typically more soluble than it is at higher pH (basic conditions).<ref name=":17">{{Cite journal|last=Luther|first=George W.|date=2010|title=The Role of One- and Two-Electron Transfer Reactions in Forming Thermodynamically Unstable Intermediates as Barriers in Multi-Electron Redox Reactions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10498-009-9082-3|journal=Aquatic Geochemistry|volume=16|issue=3|pages=395–420|doi=10.1007/s10498-009-9082-3|issn=1380-6165|via=}}</ref> This pH effect has been directly observed with Saharan dust iron solubility, as the dust tends to be more soluble in acidic aerosols and rainwater than it is in the more basic surface ocean.<ref name=":16" /> This makes [[wet deposition]] containing Saharan dust an important delivery mechanism for soluble iron to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.<ref name=":16" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Does|first=Michèlle|last2=Brummer|first2=Geert‐Jan A.|last3=Crimpen|first3=Fleur C. J.|last4=Korte|first4=Laura F.|last5=Mahowald|first5=Natalie M.|last6=Merkel|first6=Ute|last7=Yu|first7=Hongbin|last8=Zuidema|first8=Paquita|last9=Stuut|first9=Jan‐Berend W.|date=2020-03-16|title=Tropical Rains Controlling Deposition of Saharan Dust Across the North Atlantic Ocean|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL086867|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|doi=10.1029/2019GL086867|issn=0094-8276}}</ref>
 ==== Organic stabilization of aerosolized and dissolved iron ====
-Free aqueous iron is not very stable in non-acidic conditions; it tends to want to oxidize to form an iron oxide and precipitate out of solution.<ref name=":17" /> Some types of organic matter can help stabilize iron by binding to the iron and preventing the formation of relatively insoluble iron oxides. These organic molecules are called ligands. Different [[Functional group|functional groups]] and heteroatoms in organic molecules contribute differently to the molecules iron-binding activity. Heteroatoms such as [[oxygen]] (O), [[sulfur]] (S), and [[nitrogen]] (N) can increase an organic molecule's iron-binding capacity; the presence of organic matter containing O and/or S and/or N can increase the solubility of iron contained in aerosols.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Wozniak|first=Andrew S.|last2=Shelley|first2=Rachel U.|last3=McElhenie|first3=Stephanie D.|last4=Landing|first4=William M.|last5=Hatcher|first5=Patrick G.|date=2015|title=Aerosol water soluble organic matter characteristics over the North Atlantic Ocean: Implications for iron-binding ligands and iron solubility|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2014.11.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=173|pages=162–172|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2014.11.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref> [[Carboxyl Group|Carboxyl groups]] in particular have been noted for increasing ligand-like activity of organic matter in aerosols.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Wozniak|first=Andrew S.|last2=Shelley|first2=Rachel U.|last3=Sleighter|first3=Rachel L.|last4=Abdulla|first4=Hussain A.N.|last5=Morton|first5=Peter L.|last6=Landing|first6=William M.|last7=Hatcher|first7=Patrick G.|date=2013|title=Relationships among aerosol water soluble organic matter, iron and aluminum in European, North African, and Marine air masses from the 2010 US GEOTRACES cruise|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2013.04.011|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=154|pages=24–33|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2013.04.011|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> Other functional groups known to contribute to ligand-like properties in aerosols include [[Ether|ethers]], [[Ester|esters]], and [[Amine|amines.]]<ref name=":14" /> Aerosols containing more of these ligands have higher percentages of soluble iron than aerosols that have less or no ligands. Saharan dust aerosols contain lower amounts of these ligands, which contributes to the low solubility of iron from Saharan dust.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> Saharan aerosol organic matter tends to contain more [[carbohydrate]]-like material, which does not tend to have strong ligand activity.<ref name=":15" />
+Free aqueous iron is not very stable in non-acidic conditions; it tends to want to oxidize to form an iron oxide and precipitate out of solution.<ref name=":17" /> Some types of organic matter can help stabilize iron by binding to the iron and preventing the formation of relatively insoluble iron oxides. These organic molecules are called ligands. Different [[functional group]]s and heteroatoms in organic molecules contribute differently to the molecules iron-binding activity. Heteroatoms such as [[oxygen]] (O), [[sulfur]] (S), and [[nitrogen]] (N) can increase an organic molecule's iron-binding capacity; the presence of organic matter containing O and/or S and/or N can increase the solubility of iron contained in aerosols.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal|last=Wozniak|first=Andrew S.|last2=Shelley|first2=Rachel U.|last3=McElhenie|first3=Stephanie D.|last4=Landing|first4=William M.|last5=Hatcher|first5=Patrick G.|date=2015|title=Aerosol water soluble organic matter characteristics over the North Atlantic Ocean: Implications for iron-binding ligands and iron solubility|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2014.11.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=173|pages=162–172|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2014.11.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref> [[Carboxyl Group|Carboxyl groups]] in particular have been noted for increasing ligand-like activity of organic matter in aerosols.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last=Wozniak|first=Andrew S.|last2=Shelley|first2=Rachel U.|last3=Sleighter|first3=Rachel L.|last4=Abdulla|first4=Hussain A.N.|last5=Morton|first5=Peter L.|last6=Landing|first6=William M.|last7=Hatcher|first7=Patrick G.|date=2013|title=Relationships among aerosol water soluble organic matter, iron and aluminum in European, North African, and Marine air masses from the 2010 US GEOTRACES cruise|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2013.04.011|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=154|pages=24–33|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2013.04.011|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref><ref name=":14" /> Other functional groups known to contribute to ligand-like properties in aerosols include [[ether]]s, [[ester]]s, and [[Amine|amines.]]<ref name=":14" /> Aerosols containing more of these ligands have higher percentages of soluble iron than aerosols that have less or no ligands. Saharan dust aerosols contain lower amounts of these ligands, which contributes to the low solubility of iron from Saharan dust.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":15" /> Saharan aerosol organic matter tends to contain more [[carbohydrate]]-like material, which does not tend to have strong ligand activity.<ref name=":15" />
-Ligands in the surface ocean are varied in molecular structure and include compound classes such as [[Porphyrin|porphyrins]] and [[Siderophore|siderophores.]]<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Weaver|first=RS|last2=Kirchman|first2=DL|last3=Hutchins|first3=DA|date=2003|title=Utilization of iron/organic ligand complexes by marine bacterioplankton|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/ame031227|journal=Aquatic Microbial Ecology|volume=31|pages=227–239|doi=10.3354/ame031227|issn=0948-3055}}</ref> These molecules are generally produced by marine [[bacteria]] or [[phytoplankton]] to obtain metals in regions where metal concentrations are low.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Buck|first=Kristen N.|last2=Selph|first2=Karen E.|last3=Barbeau|first3=Katherine A.|date=2010|title=Iron-binding ligand production and copper speciation in an incubation experiment of Antarctic Peninsula shelf waters from the Bransfield Strait, Southern Ocean|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2010.06.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=122|issue=1-4|pages=148–159|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2010.06.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hassler|first=Christel S.|last2=Norman|first2=Louiza|last3=Mancuso Nichols|first3=Carol A.|last4=Clementson|first4=Lesley A.|last5=Robinson|first5=Charlotte|last6=Schoemann|first6=Véronique|last7=Watson|first7=Roslyn J.|last8=Doblin|first8=Martina A.|date=2015|title=Iron associated with exopolymeric substances is highly bioavailable to oceanic phytoplankton|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2014.10.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=173|pages=136–147|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2014.10.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref> Other ligands in the ocean are produced as organic matter breaks down to form [[humic acids|humic acids.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=Véronique E.|last2=Mucci|first2=Alfonso|last3=Tebo|first3=Bradley M.|last4=Luther|first4=George W.|date=2017|title=Soluble Mn(III)–L complexes are abundant in oxygenated waters and stabilized by humic ligands|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2016.11.043|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume=199|pages=238–246|doi=10.1016/j.gca.2016.11.043|issn=0016-7037|via=}}</ref> These humic acids, as well as [[oxalate]], [[malonate]], and [[tartrate]], have been shown to specifically increase the solubility of iron contained in Saharan dust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paris|first=R.|last2=Desboeufs|first2=K. V.|date=2013|title=Effect of atmospheric organic complexation on iron-bearing dust solubility|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/13/4895/2013/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=en|volume=13|issue=9|pages=4895–4905|doi=10.5194/acp-13-4895-2013|issn=1680-7324|via=}}</ref>
+Ligands in the surface ocean are varied in molecular structure and include compound classes such as [[porphyrin]]s and [[Siderophore|siderophores.]]<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|last=Weaver|first=RS|last2=Kirchman|first2=DL|last3=Hutchins|first3=DA|date=2003|title=Utilization of iron/organic ligand complexes by marine bacterioplankton|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/ame031227|journal=Aquatic Microbial Ecology|volume=31|pages=227–239|doi=10.3354/ame031227|issn=0948-3055}}</ref> These molecules are generally produced by marine [[bacteria]] or [[phytoplankton]] to obtain metals in regions where metal concentrations are low.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|last=Buck|first=Kristen N.|last2=Selph|first2=Karen E.|last3=Barbeau|first3=Katherine A.|date=2010|title=Iron-binding ligand production and copper speciation in an incubation experiment of Antarctic Peninsula shelf waters from the Bransfield Strait, Southern Ocean|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2010.06.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=122|issue=1-4|pages=148–159|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2010.06.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hassler|first=Christel S.|last2=Norman|first2=Louiza|last3=Mancuso Nichols|first3=Carol A.|last4=Clementson|first4=Lesley A.|last5=Robinson|first5=Charlotte|last6=Schoemann|first6=Véronique|last7=Watson|first7=Roslyn J.|last8=Doblin|first8=Martina A.|date=2015|title=Iron associated with exopolymeric substances is highly bioavailable to oceanic phytoplankton|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2014.10.002|journal=Marine Chemistry|volume=173|pages=136–147|doi=10.1016/j.marchem.2014.10.002|issn=0304-4203|via=}}</ref> Other ligands in the ocean are produced as organic matter breaks down to form [[humic acids]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Oldham|first=Véronique E.|last2=Mucci|first2=Alfonso|last3=Tebo|first3=Bradley M.|last4=Luther|first4=George W.|date=2017|title=Soluble Mn(III)–L complexes are abundant in oxygenated waters and stabilized by humic ligands|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2016.11.043|journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume=199|pages=238–246|doi=10.1016/j.gca.2016.11.043|issn=0016-7037|via=}}</ref> These humic acids, as well as [[oxalate]], [[malonate]], and [[tartrate]], have been shown to specifically increase the solubility of iron contained in Saharan dust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Paris|first=R.|last2=Desboeufs|first2=K. V.|date=2013|title=Effect of atmospheric organic complexation on iron-bearing dust solubility|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/13/4895/2013/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=en|volume=13|issue=9|pages=4895–4905|doi=10.5194/acp-13-4895-2013|issn=1680-7324|via=}}</ref>
 === Bioavailability of Saharan dust-derived iron ===
@@ Line 55: / Line 57: @@
 The meteorology in the Sahara is affected by the [[Sahel]] climate. This meteorology condition will determine the direction, speed, altitude, trajectory, distance travel, and duration of Saharan dust in the surrounding regions.<ref name=":02">{{Citation|last=Prospero|first=J. M.|title=Saharan Dust Transport Over the North Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean: An Overview|date=1996|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0_13|work=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean|volume=11|pages=133–151|editor-last=Guerzoni|editor-first=Stefano|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0_13|isbn=978-90-481-4764-9|access-date=2020-11-06|editor2-last=Chester|editor2-first=Roy}}</ref> The trajectory of Saharan Dust is measured by the visibility of Saharan Dust plume which can be detected by forecasters. Scientists monitor the plume using data from several satellites, such as [[GOES-16]], [[NOAA-20]], and the NOAA/NASA [[Suomi NPP|Suomi-NPP,]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lamancusa|first=Carmen|last2=Wagstrom|first2=Kristina|date=2019-10-01|title=Global transport of dust emitted from different regions of the Sahara|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231019303474|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=214|pages=116734|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.05.042|issn=1352-2310}}</ref> where others use in-situ monitoring such as Aerosol Robotic NETwork ([[AERONET]])<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qiaoqiao|last2=Gu|first2=Jianwei|last3=Wang|first3=Xurong|date=2020-11-15|title=The impact of Sahara dust on air quality and public health in European countries|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020305033|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=241|pages=117771|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117771|issn=1352-2310}}</ref> and radiometric measurements such as Terra Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer ([[Multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer|MISR]]), Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar, and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation ([[CALIPSO]]) with [[Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field|Eulerian and Lagrangian]] approach.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Gläser|first=Gregor|last2=Wernli|first2=Heini|last3=Kerkweg|first3=Astrid|last4=Teubler|first4=Franziska|date=2015|title=The transatlantic dust transport from North Africa to the Americas—Its characteristics and source regions|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2015JD023792|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|language=en|volume=120|issue=21|pages=11,231–11,252|doi=10.1002/2015JD023792|issn=2169-8996}}</ref> Since the 2000's, The Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory model ([[HYSPLIT]]) can be used to track the back trajectory of air masses, dust dispersion and deposition.
-Saharan dust can travel over large distances through the [[troposphere]]. The trajectory of Saharan dust is divided into three categories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Middleton|first=N. J.|last2=Goudie|first2=A. S.|date=2001|title=Saharan dust: sources and trajectories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00013|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|volume=26|issue=2|pages=165–181|doi=10.1111/1475-5661.00013|issn=0020-2754|via=}}</ref> The westward trajectory, also known as transatlantic transport, reaches the [[Gulf of Guinea|Gulf of Guinea,]]<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Afeti|first=G.M.|last2=Resch|first2=F.J.|date=2000|title=Physical characteristics of Saharan dust near the Gulf of Guinea|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231099002964|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=34|issue=8|pages=1273–1279|doi=10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00296-4|via=}}</ref> the [[Caribbean|Caribbean Island]], [[United States|the United States of America]], and [[South America|South America.]]<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Prospero|first=Joseph M.|last2=Mayol-Bracero|first2=Olga L.|date=2013|title=Understanding the Transport and Impact of African Dust on the Caribbean Basin|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00142.1|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|language=en|volume=94|issue=9|pages=1329–1337|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00142.1|issn=0003-0007|via=}}</ref> The northward trajectory is toward the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[southern Europe]] and can sometimes extend further north to [[Scandinavia]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0|title=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean|date=1996|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-90-481-4764-9|editor-last=Guerzoni|editor-first=Stefano|series=Environmental Science and Technology Library|volume=11|location=Dordrecht|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0|editor-last2=Chester|editor-first2=Roy}}</ref> The last one is the eastward trajectory to the eastern Mediterranean and [[Middle East|the Middle East.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ganor|first=Eliezer|date=1994-09-01|title=The frequency of Saharan dust episodes over Tel Aviv, Israel|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/1352231094900876|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=28|issue=17|pages=2867–2871|doi=10.1016/1352-2310(94)90087-6|issn=1352-2310}}</ref> Furthermore, Saharan dust can experience transcontinental transport to [[Japan]] via the easterly trajectory where about 50% of the dust particles come from Saharan dust.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Tanaka|first=Taichu Y.|last2=Kurosaki|first2=Yasunori|last3=Chiba|first3=Masaru|last4=Matsumura|first4=Takatsugu|last5=Nagai|first5=Tomohiro|last6=Yamazaki|first6=Akihiro|last7=Uchiyama|first7=Akihiro|last8=Tsunematsu|first8=Nobumitsu|last9=Kai|first9=Kenji|date=2005|title=Possible transcontinental dust transport from North Africa and the Middle East to East Asia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231005003006|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=39|issue=21|pages=3901–3909|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.03.034|via=}}</ref> The estimation of the dust deposition from these trajectories is 170 Tg/yr in the Atlantic, 25 Tg/yr in in Mediterranean and 5 Tg/yr in Caribbean. <ref name=":02" />
+Saharan dust can travel over large distances through the [[troposphere]]. The trajectory of Saharan dust is divided into three categories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Middleton|first=N. J.|last2=Goudie|first2=A. S.|date=2001|title=Saharan dust: sources and trajectories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1475-5661.00013|journal=Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers|volume=26|issue=2|pages=165–181|doi=10.1111/1475-5661.00013|issn=0020-2754|via=}}</ref> The westward trajectory, also known as transatlantic transport, reaches the [[Gulf of Guinea]],<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last=Afeti|first=G.M.|last2=Resch|first2=F.J.|date=2000|title=Physical characteristics of Saharan dust near the Gulf of Guinea|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231099002964|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=34|issue=8|pages=1273–1279|doi=10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00296-4|via=}}</ref> the [[Caribbean|Caribbean Island]], [[United States|the United States of America]], and [[South America]].<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last=Prospero|first=Joseph M.|last2=Mayol-Bracero|first2=Olga L.|date=2013|title=Understanding the Transport and Impact of African Dust on the Caribbean Basin|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00142.1|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|language=en|volume=94|issue=9|pages=1329–1337|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00142.1|issn=0003-0007|via=}}</ref> The northward trajectory is toward the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[southern Europe]] and can sometimes extend further north to [[Scandinavia]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0|title=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean|date=1996|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-90-481-4764-9|editor-last=Guerzoni|editor-first=Stefano|series=Environmental Science and Technology Library|volume=11|location=Dordrecht|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0|editor-last2=Chester|editor-first2=Roy}}</ref> The last one is the eastward trajectory to the eastern Mediterranean and [[Middle East|the Middle East.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ganor|first=Eliezer|date=1994-09-01|title=The frequency of Saharan dust episodes over Tel Aviv, Israel|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/1352231094900876|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=28|issue=17|pages=2867–2871|doi=10.1016/1352-2310(94)90087-6|issn=1352-2310}}</ref> Furthermore, Saharan dust can experience transcontinental transport to [[Japan]] via the easterly trajectory where about 50% of the dust particles come from Saharan dust.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Tanaka|first=Taichu Y.|last2=Kurosaki|first2=Yasunori|last3=Chiba|first3=Masaru|last4=Matsumura|first4=Takatsugu|last5=Nagai|first5=Tomohiro|last6=Yamazaki|first6=Akihiro|last7=Uchiyama|first7=Akihiro|last8=Tsunematsu|first8=Nobumitsu|last9=Kai|first9=Kenji|date=2005|title=Possible transcontinental dust transport from North Africa and the Middle East to East Asia|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231005003006|journal=Atmospheric Environment|language=en|volume=39|issue=21|pages=3901–3909|doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.03.034|via=}}</ref> The estimation of the dust deposition from these trajectories is 170 Tg/yr in the Atlantic, 25 Tg/yr in in Mediterranean and 5 Tg/yr in Caribbean.<ref name=":02" />
 === Formation of Saharan dust ===
-In order for Saharan dust to impact systems around the globe, it first must become airborne and leave the Sahara. The [[Bodélé Depression]] is one of the most significant sites of Saharan dust formation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Bruce M.|last2=Reynolds|first2=Richard L.|last3=Goldstein|first3=Harland L.|last4=Berquó|first4=Thelma S.|last5=Kokaly|first5=Raymond F.|last6=Bristow|first6=Charlie S.|date=2016|title=Iron oxide minerals in dust-source sediments from the Bodélé Depression, Chad: Implications for radiative properties and Fe bioavailability of dust plumes from the Sahara|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2016.07.001|journal=Aeolian Research|volume=22|pages=93–106|doi=10.1016/j.aeolia.2016.07.001|issn=1875-9637|via=}}</ref> The depression is composed of dried lake beds now covered by dunes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warren|first=Andrew|last2=Chappell|first2=Adrian|last3=Todd|first3=Martin C.|last4=Bristow|first4=Charlie|last5=Drake|first5=Nick|last6=Engelstaedter|first6=Sebastian|last7=Martins|first7=Vanderlei|last8=M'bainayel|first8=Samuel|last9=Washington|first9=Richard|date=2007-11-15|title=Dust-raising in the dustiest place on earth|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X07000694|journal=Geomorphology|language=en|volume=92|issue=1|pages=25–37|doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.007|issn=0169-555X}}</ref> Winds moving at speeds between 6 and 16 m/s through this region pick up loose sediment, and transport the dust away from the Sahara.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Washington|first=Richard|last2=Todd|first2=Martin C.|last3=Engelstaedter|first3=Sebastian|last4=Mbainayel|first4=Samuel|last5=Mitchell|first5=Fiona|date=2006|title=Dust and the low-level circulation over the Bodélé Depression, Chad: Observations from BoDEx 2005|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005jd006502|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=111|issue=D3|doi=10.1029/2005jd006502|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> Higher wind speeds tend to generate larger dust events in this region.<ref name=":18" /> The highest output of dust from this region occurs from spring through fall.<ref name=":18" />
+In order for Saharan dust to impact systems around the globe, it first must become airborne and leave the Sahara. The [[Bodélé Depression]] is one of the most significant sites of Saharan dust formation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moskowitz|first=Bruce M.|last2=Reynolds|first2=Richard L.|last3=Goldstein|first3=Harland L.|last4=Berquó|first4=Thelma S.|last5=Kokaly|first5=Raymond F.|last6=Bristow|first6=Charlie S.|date=2016|title=Iron oxide minerals in dust-source sediments from the Bodélé Depression, Chad: Implications for radiative properties and Fe bioavailability of dust plumes from the Sahara|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2016.07.001|journal=Aeolian Research|volume=22|pages=93–106|doi=10.1016/j.aeolia.2016.07.001|issn=1875-9637|via=}}</ref> The depression is composed of dried lake beds now covered by dunes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warren|first=Andrew|last2=Chappell|first2=Adrian|last3=Todd|first3=Martin C.|last4=Bristow|first4=Charlie|last5=Drake|first5=Nick|last6=Engelstaedter|first6=Sebastian|last7=Martins|first7=Vanderlei|last8=M'bainayel|first8=Samuel|last9=Washington|first9=Richard|date=2007-11-15|title=Dust-raising in the dustiest place on earth|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169555X07000694|journal=Geomorphology|language=en|volume=92|issue=1|pages=25–37|doi=10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.02.007|issn=0169-555X}}</ref> Winds moving at speeds between 6 and 16&nbsp;m/s through this region pick up loose sediment, and transport the dust away from the Sahara.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal|last=Washington|first=Richard|last2=Todd|first2=Martin C.|last3=Engelstaedter|first3=Sebastian|last4=Mbainayel|first4=Samuel|last5=Mitchell|first5=Fiona|date=2006|title=Dust and the low-level circulation over the Bodélé Depression, Chad: Observations from BoDEx 2005|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005jd006502|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|volume=111|issue=D3|doi=10.1029/2005jd006502|issn=0148-0227}}</ref> Higher wind speeds tend to generate larger dust events in this region.<ref name=":18" /> The highest output of dust from this region occurs from spring through fall.<ref name=":18" />
 === The Westward trajectory ===
-[[File:This animation of the progression Saharan dust cloud across the Atlantic Ocean from June 15 to 25, 2020.gif|thumb|400x400px|Saharan dust cloud across the Atlantic Ocean from June 15 to 25, 2020 combines OMPS aerosol index and VIIRS visible imagery from NASA/NOAA’s Suomi NPP satellite by Colin Seftor<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jenner|first=Lynn|date=2020-06-26|title=NASA-NOAA’s Suomi NPP Satellite Analyzes Saharan Dust Aerosol Blanket|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-noaa-s-suomi-npp-satellite-analyzes-saharan-dust-aerosol-blanket|access-date=2020-11-06|website=NASA}}</ref> ]]
+[[File:This animation of the progression Saharan dust cloud across the Atlantic Ocean from June 15 to 25, 2020.gif|thumb|400x400px|Saharan dust cloud across the Atlantic Ocean from June 15 to 25, 2020 combines OMPS aerosol index and VIIRS visible imagery from NASA/NOAA’s Suomi NPP satellite by Colin Seftor<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jenner|first=Lynn|date=2020-06-26|title=NASA-NOAA’s Suomi NPP Satellite Analyzes Saharan Dust Aerosol Blanket|url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-noaa-s-suomi-npp-satellite-analyzes-saharan-dust-aerosol-blanket|access-date=2020-11-06|website=NASA}}</ref>]]
-The westward trajectory is referred as the transatlantic transport, which is the dispersion of Saharan Dust to the west through the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The westward trajectory is the most voluminous, and makes up 30-60% of the total annual Saharan Dust, supplying 60% of the dust to the Gulf of Guinea and 28% to the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Touré|first=N'Datchoh Evelyne|last2=Konaré|first2=Abdourahamane|last3=Silué|first3=Siélé|date=2012-07-24|title=Intercontinental Transport and Climatic Impact of Saharan and Sahelian Dust|url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/amete/2012/157020/|access-date=2020-11-06|website=Advances in Meteorology|language=en}}</ref> This trajectory happens during the northern hemisphere winter and summer. The winter season in the northern hemisphere happens in the end of November until the middle of the March where the westward wind shifts to the northeasterly [[trade wind]] ([[Harmattan|Harmattan season]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Prospero|first=J. M.|last2=Glaccum|first2=R. A.|last3=Nees|first3=R. T.|date=1981|title=Atmospheric transport of soil dust from Africa to South America|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/289570a0|journal=Nature|volume=289|issue=5798|pages=570–572|doi=10.1038/289570a0|issn=0028-0836|via=}}</ref> This trajectory is mostly influenced by the the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)]], which links to the [[monsoon]] flow and results in the raising of Saharan Dust plume.<ref name=":5" /> Due to this convection, this wind brings the dust from the Sahara to the Gulf of Guinea and the resulting dense fog in that surrounding area.<ref name=":22" /> Subsequently, in summer, the wind shifts westward, which transports Saharan Dust toward the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The atmospheric layer in this region is the [[Saharan Air Layer]], which is typically dry and hot during this season. This wind brings Sahara Dust to [[South America]] and continues to the [[Amazon basin|Amazon Basin.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SWAP|first=R.|last2=GARSTANG|first2=M.|last3=GRECO|first3=S.|last4=TALBOT|first4=R.|last5=KALLBERG|first5=P.|date=1992|title=Saharan dust in the Amazon Basin|url=https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00005.x|journal=Tellus B|language=en|volume=44|issue=2|pages=133–149|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00005.x|issn=0280-6509|via=}}</ref> In addition, the peak of this season between July and August brings the dust from the western part of the Sahara Desert directly to the Caribbean islands and the United States of America.<ref name=":32" /> Saharan Dust takes about 5-7 days to reach the [[Caribbean]], however, depending on the climate and the magnitude of Saharan Dust plume, it can be transported further for up to 10 days.<ref name=":4" /> On June 25, 2020, NASA reported a gigantic Saharan Dust Aerosol Blanket which was called the "Godzilla dust plume"<ref>{{Cite web|last=July 2020|first=Meghan Bartels 09|title=Satellite sees 'Godzilla' dust plume sweep across the Atlantic Ocean|url=https://www.space.com/godzilla-dust-plume-from-sahara-satellite-photos.html|access-date=2020-11-07|website=Space.com|language=en}}</ref> over the Atlantic Ocean, which spread 5,000 miles across the Atlantic ocean from 15-25 June 2020. This was reported as the largest plume over the past 50-60 years period.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Imbler|first=Sabrina|date=2020-06-24|title=A Giant Dust Storm Is Heading Across the Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/06/saharan-dust-storms-giving-earth-life/613441/|access-date=2020-11-06|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US}}</ref>
+The westward trajectory is referred as the transatlantic transport, which is the dispersion of Saharan Dust to the west through the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The westward trajectory is the most voluminous, and makes up 30-60% of the total annual Saharan Dust, supplying 60% of the dust to the Gulf of Guinea and 28% to the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Touré|first=N'Datchoh Evelyne|last2=Konaré|first2=Abdourahamane|last3=Silué|first3=Siélé|date=2012-07-24|title=Intercontinental Transport and Climatic Impact of Saharan and Sahelian Dust|url=https://www.hindawi.com/journals/amete/2012/157020/|access-date=2020-11-06|website=Advances in Meteorology|language=en}}</ref> This trajectory happens during the northern hemisphere winter and summer. The winter season in the northern hemisphere happens in the end of November until the middle of the March where the westward wind shifts to the northeasterly [[trade wind]] ([[Harmattan|Harmattan season]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Prospero|first=J. M.|last2=Glaccum|first2=R. A.|last3=Nees|first3=R. T.|date=1981|title=Atmospheric transport of soil dust from Africa to South America|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/289570a0|journal=Nature|volume=289|issue=5798|pages=570–572|doi=10.1038/289570a0|issn=0028-0836|via=}}</ref> This trajectory is mostly influenced by the the [[Intertropical Convergence Zone|Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)]], which links to the [[monsoon]] flow and results in the raising of Saharan Dust plume.<ref name=":5" /> Due to this convection, this wind brings the dust from the Sahara to the Gulf of Guinea and the resulting dense fog in that surrounding area.<ref name=":22" /> Subsequently, in summer, the wind shifts westward, which transports Saharan Dust toward the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The atmospheric layer in this region is the [[Saharan Air Layer]], which is typically dry and hot during this season. This wind brings Sahara Dust to [[South America]] and continues to the [[Amazon basin|Amazon Basin.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SWAP|first=R.|last2=GARSTANG|first2=M.|last3=GRECO|first3=S.|last4=TALBOT|first4=R.|last5=KALLBERG|first5=P.|date=1992|title=Saharan dust in the Amazon Basin|url=https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00005.x|journal=Tellus B|language=en|volume=44|issue=2|pages=133–149|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00005.x|issn=0280-6509|via=}}</ref> In addition, the peak of this season between July and August brings the dust from the western part of the Sahara Desert directly to the Caribbean islands and the United States of America.<ref name=":32" /> Saharan Dust takes about 5–7 days to reach the [[Caribbean]], however, depending on the climate and the magnitude of Saharan Dust plume, it can be transported further for up to 10 days.<ref name=":4" /> On June 25, 2020, NASA reported a gigantic Saharan Dust Aerosol Blanket which was called the "Godzilla dust plume"<ref>{{Cite web|last=July 2020|first=Meghan Bartels 09|title=Satellite sees 'Godzilla' dust plume sweep across the Atlantic Ocean|url=https://www.space.com/godzilla-dust-plume-from-sahara-satellite-photos.html|access-date=2020-11-07|website=Space.com|language=en}}</ref> over the Atlantic Ocean, which spread 5,000 miles across the Atlantic ocean from 15–25 June 2020. This was reported as the largest plume over the past 50–60 years period.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Imbler|first=Sabrina|date=2020-06-24|title=A Giant Dust Storm Is Heading Across the Atlantic|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/06/saharan-dust-storms-giving-earth-life/613441/|access-date=2020-11-06|website=The Atlantic|language=en-US}}</ref>
 === The Northward trajectory ===
 [[File:MediterraneanSea amo 2015032 lrg.jpg|thumb|402x402px|Saharan dust over the Mediterranean Sea on February 1, 2015, by ''Jeff Schmaltz, LANCE/EOSDIS Rapid Response''<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-02-05|title=Saharan Dust over the Mediterranean Sea|url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/85218/saharan-dust-over-the-mediterranean-sea|access-date=2020-11-06|website=earthobservatory.nasa.gov|language=en}}</ref>]]
 The northward trajectory is correlated with the southerly winds that brings Saharan Dust to the Mediterranean Basin and further to the Southern Europe. This wind is called [[Sirocco]], a southerly wind that originates from the Sahara desert and commonly occurs during autumn and spring. This trajectory reaches a peak in March and in November, where Saharan Dust can reach up to Southern Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cerro|first=José C.|last2=Cerdà|first2=Víctor|last3=Caballero|first3=Sandra|last4=Bujosa|first4=Carles|last5=Alastuey|first5=Andrés|last6=Querol|first6=Xavier|last7=Pey|first7=Jorge|date=2020-12-10|title=Chemistry of dry and wet atmospheric deposition over the Balearic Islands, NW Mediterranean: Source apportionment and African dust areas|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969720347161|journal=Science of The Total Environment|language=en|volume=747|pages=141187|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141187|issn=0048-9697}}</ref> However, when rain occurs, the dust will deposit quickly in the Mediterranean basin. Over the year, the least active months of Saharan Dust dispersal for the whole Mediterranean is December.
 === The Eastwards trajectory ===
-The eastward trajectory originates from the eastern Sahara Desert and expands from the Northward Trajectory. The lifting from the northward trajectory is primarily associated with the occurrence of southerly flow ahead of synoptic frontal systems traveling eastward across the Mediterranean or originating in the northern Sahara and moving northeastward.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guerzoni|first=S.|last2=Molinaroli|first2=E.|last3=Chester|first3=R.|date=1997-01-01|title=Saharan dust inputs to the western Mediterranean Sea: depositional patterns, geochemistry and sedimentological implications|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064596000963|journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|language=en|volume=44|issue=3|pages=631–654|doi=10.1016/S0967-0645(96)00096-3|issn=0967-0645}}</ref> This event usually happens during Spring and needs 2-4 days to reach the Central Mediterranean and move towards the Middle East.<ref name=":4" />
+The eastward trajectory originates from the eastern Sahara Desert and expands from the Northward Trajectory. The lifting from the northward trajectory is primarily associated with the occurrence of southerly flow ahead of synoptic frontal systems traveling eastward across the Mediterranean or originating in the northern Sahara and moving northeastward.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guerzoni|first=S.|last2=Molinaroli|first2=E.|last3=Chester|first3=R.|date=1997-01-01|title=Saharan dust inputs to the western Mediterranean Sea: depositional patterns, geochemistry and sedimentological implications|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967064596000963|journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|language=en|volume=44|issue=3|pages=631–654|doi=10.1016/S0967-0645(96)00096-3|issn=0967-0645}}</ref> This event usually happens during Spring and needs 2–4 days to reach the Central Mediterranean and move towards the Middle East.<ref name=":4" />
 === The transcontinental trajectory ===
-The transcontinental trajectory refers to the movement of Saharan Dust passing over Asia, where the last point is Japan. The [[Asian Dust]] event in Japan is named "Kosa" (means "Yellow Sand" as Aeolian dust in Japanese), and used to be correlated with the dust originating from the arid region of China and Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Masatoshi|first=Yoshino|date=2002-12-01|title=Climatology of yellow sand (Asian sand, Asian dust or Kosa) in East Asia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02878390|journal=Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.1007/BF02878390|issn=1862-2801}}</ref> However, on March 2003, the Kosa had no correlation with dust even in China and Mongolia. It is reported that the dust came from Saharan Dust and traveled for 9-10 days to reach Japan.<ref name=":9" />
+The transcontinental trajectory refers to the movement of Saharan Dust passing over Asia, where the last point is Japan. The [[Asian Dust]] event in Japan is named "Kosa" (means "Yellow Sand" as Aeolian dust in Japanese), and used to be correlated with the dust originating from the arid region of China and Mongolia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Masatoshi|first=Yoshino|date=2002-12-01|title=Climatology of yellow sand (Asian sand, Asian dust or Kosa) in East Asia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02878390|journal=Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences|language=en|volume=45|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.1007/BF02878390|issn=1862-2801}}</ref> However, on March 2003, the Kosa had no correlation with dust even in China and Mongolia. It is reported that the dust came from Saharan Dust and traveled for 9–10 days to reach Japan.<ref name=":9" />
 == Impacts on ocean and land ecosystems ==
 === Stimulation of primary production ===
-The nutrients that Saharan dust provides to marine ecosystems are important for [[primary production]]. Iron is a necessary [[micronutrient]] for [[photosynthesis]] in [[Marine primary production|marine primary producers]] such as [[phytoplankton]]. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most dust that is brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require organic molecules called [[ligand|ligands]] to help make the iron usable for  photosynthesis.<ref name=":23" />
+The nutrients that Saharan dust provides to marine ecosystems are important for [[primary production]]. Iron is a necessary [[micronutrient]] for [[photosynthesis]] in [[Marine primary production|marine primary producers]] such as [[phytoplankton]]. In parts of the Atlantic, dissolved iron is thought to limit the amount of photosynthesis that phytoplankton can carry out. In most dust that is brought to the ocean’s surface, the iron is not soluble, and organisms require organic molecules called [[ligand]]s to help make the iron usable for  photosynthesis.<ref name=":23" />
+One group of primary producers in the Atlantic, is called [[diazotroph]]s. [[Diazotroph]]s show increased need for the micronutrient iron since they perform [[nitrogen fixation]]<ref name=":2" /> and the enzyme [[nitrogenase]] required for nitrogen fixing contains iron.<ref name=":3" />
-One group of primary producers in the Atlantic, is called [[Diazotroph|diazotrophs]]. [[Diazotroph|Diazotrophs]] show increased need for the micronutrient iron since they perform [[nitrogen fixation]]<ref name=":2" /> and the enzyme [[nitrogenase]] required for nitrogen fixing contains iron.<ref name=":3" />
 === North Atlantic Ocean circulation ===
 The presence of Saharan mineral dust in the Atlantic Ocean can attenuate solar radiation, reducing the amount of [[Solar irradiance|shortwave radiation]] that reaches the sea surface and decreasing the sea surface temperature (SST).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yue|first=X.|last2=Liao|first2=H.|last3=Wang|first3=H. J.|last4=Li|first4=S. L.|last5=Tang|first5=J. P.|date=2011-06-28|title=Role of sea surface temperature responses in simulation of the climatic effect of mineral dust aerosol|url=https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/11/6049/2011/|journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics|language=English|volume=11|issue=12|pages=6049–6062|doi=10.5194/acp-11-6049-2011|issn=1680-7316}}</ref> This has been shown to account for up to 35% of the inter-annual variability in summer SST over the North Atlantic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Foltz|first=Gregory R.|last2=McPhaden|first2=Michael J.|date=2008-10-01|title=Impact of Saharan Dust on Tropical North Atlantic SST|url=https://journals.ametsoc.org/jcli/article/21/19/5048/32068/Impact-of-Saharan-Dust-on-Tropical-North-Atlantic|journal=Journal of Climate|language=en|volume=21|issue=19|pages=5048–5060|doi=10.1175/2008JCLI2232.1|issn=0894-8755}}</ref> A more highly concentrated Saharan Air Layer (SAL) has also been linked with bringing greater precipitation to the northern tropical Atlantic by way of shifting the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) north by a few degrees.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilcox|first=Eric M.|last2=Lau|first2=K. M.|last3=Kim|first3=Kyu-Myong|date=2010|title=A northward shift of the North Atlantic Ocean Intertropical Convergence Zone in response to summertime Saharan dust outbreaks|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2009GL041774|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=37|issue=4|doi=10.1029/2009GL041774|issn=1944-8007}}</ref>
 With the presence of dust controlling a lot of the variability in SST, major ocean circulation patterns can also be influenced by dust accumulation.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Serra|first=N.|last2=Martínez Avellaneda|first2=N.|last3=Stammer|first3=D.|date=2014|title=Large-scale impact of Saharan dust on the North Atlantic Ocean circulation: LARGE-SCALE SAHARAN DUST IMPACT|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2013JC009274|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans|language=en|volume=119|issue=2|pages=704–730|doi=10.1002/2013JC009274|via=}}</ref> Decreased SST can upset the stability of the [[Stratification (water)|ocean stratification]], leading to enhanced vertical mixing which can in turn influence the behavior of the greater [[Geostrophic Flow|geostrophic flow]] field. Since Saharan Dust originates on the eastern side of the Atlantic basin, this is where the shortwave radiation flux is reduced the most, hence it is the origin of the largest anomalous ocean conditions. These anomalies slowly advect westward across the basin, leading to basin-scale zonal pressure gradients that further change the basin-wide circulation.<ref name=":6" /> These [[Ocean gyre|gyre]] and basin circulation impacts happen on the scale of several years<ref name=":6" /> - large dust storm events can have impacts on the circulation years later.
 === Desert dust across the Mediterranean ===
-There are no clear dust sources in Europe, however, desert dust is occasionally discovered in various areas of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieri |first1=L. |last2=Matzneller |first2=P. |last3=Gaspari |first3=N. |last4=Marotti |first4=I. |last5=Dinelli |first5=G. |last6=Rossi |first6=P. |title=Bulk atmospheric deposition in the southern Po Valley (northern Italy) |journal=Water Air Soil Pollution |date=2010 |volume=210 |page=155-169 |doi=10.1007/s11270-009-0238-y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerasopoulos |first1=E. |last2=Amiridis |first2=V. |last3=Kazadzis |first3=S. |last4=Kokkalis |first4=P. |last5=Eleftheratos |first5=K. |last6=Andreae |first6=M. O. |last7=Andreae |first7=T. W. |last8=El-Askary |first8=H. |last9=Zerefos |first9=C. S. |title=Three-year ground based measurements of aerosol optical depthover the Eastern Mediterranean: The urban environment of Athens |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=2011 |volume=11 |page=2145-2159 |doi=10.5194/acp-11-2145-2011}}</ref> The transport of the desert dust in the Mediterranean region depends on the seasonal variation of dust sources from Africa and the seasonal changes of the atmospheric circulation (see previous Saharan Dust Trajectory section).
+There are no clear dust sources in Europe, however, desert dust is occasionally discovered in various areas of Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieri |first1=L. |last2=Matzneller |first2=P. |last3=Gaspari |first3=N. |last4=Marotti |first4=I. |last5=Dinelli |first5=G. |last6=Rossi |first6=P. |title=Bulk atmospheric deposition in the southern Po Valley (northern Italy) |journal=Water Air Soil Pollution |date=2010 |volume=210 |pages=155–169 |doi=10.1007/s11270-009-0238-y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerasopoulos |first1=E. |last2=Amiridis |first2=V. |last3=Kazadzis |first3=S. |last4=Kokkalis |first4=P. |last5=Eleftheratos |first5=K. |last6=Andreae |first6=M. O. |last7=Andreae |first7=T. W. |last8=El-Askary |first8=H. |last9=Zerefos |first9=C. S. |title=Three-year ground based measurements of aerosol optical depthover the Eastern Mediterranean: The urban environment of Athens |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=2011 |volume=11 |pages=2145–2159 |doi=10.5194/acp-11-2145-2011}}</ref> The transport of the desert dust in the Mediterranean region depends on the seasonal variation of dust sources from Africa and the seasonal changes of the atmospheric circulation (see previous Saharan Dust Trajectory section).
-Evidence of dust transport from Africa over Northern Italy shows that the composition of [[particulate matter|particulate matter]] changed considerably due to the significant increase of [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|crustal element]] concentration, e.g., [[aluminium|Al]], [[silicon|Si]], [[titanium|Ti]], [[potassium|K]], [[Iron|Fe]] and [[calcium|Ca]], however, concentrations of anthropogenic elements remain constant.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonelli |first1=P. |last2=Marcazzan |first2=G. M. Braga |last3=Cereda |first3=E. |title=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean |date=1996 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-017-3354-0 |pages=275–283 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0_27 |language=en |chapter=Elemental Composition and Air Trajectories of African Dust Transported in Northern Italy}}</ref> Saharan Dust is a major source of atmospheric aerosol over the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is the most important sedimentary contributor to the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Basin]].<ref name=":25">{{cite journal |last1=Molinaroli |first1=E. |last2=Guerzoni |first2=S. |last3=Rampazzo |first3=G. |title=Contribution of Saharan dust to the Central Mediterranean Basin |journal=Geological Society of America, Special Paper |date=1993 |volume=284 |page=303-312}}</ref> These aerosols play a crucial role in supplying macro- and micro- nutrients to its low-nutrient and low-[[chlorophyll]] water, enhancing primary production and affecting the [[bacterioplankton]] community structure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahav |first1=E. |last2=Paytan |first2=A. |last3=Chien |first3=C. |last4=Ovadia |first4=G. |last5=Katz |first5=T. |last6=Herut |first6=B. |title=The impact of atmospheric dry deposition associated microbes on the southeastern Mediterranean Sea surface water following an intense dust storm. |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=2016 |volume=3 |issue=127 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2016.00127}}</ref> The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is extremely [[oligotrophic]] <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siokou-Frangou |first1=I. |last2=Christaki |first2=U. |last3=Mazzocchi |first3=M.G. |last4=Montresor |first4=M. |last5=Ribera d'Alcalá |first5=M. |last6=Vaqué |first6=D. |title=Plankton in the open Mediterranean Sea: a review |journal=Biogeosciences |date=2010 |volume=7 |page=1543-1586 |doi=10.5194/bg-7-1543-2010}}</ref> and is greatly influenced by desert dusts. In the past decade, the increase of temperature and decrease of precipitation at the Eastern Mediterranean Sea cause soil drying,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lelieveld |first1=J. |last2=Hadjinicolaou |first2=P. |last3=Kostopoulou |first3=E. |last4=Chenoweth |first4=J. |last5=El Maayar |first5=M. |last6=Giannakopoulos |first6=C. |title=Climate change and impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East |journal=Climate Change |date=2012 |volume=114 |page=667-687 |doi=10.1007/s10584-012-0418-4}}</ref> leading to increased dust emission. Due to [[climate change]], this process is expected to continue in the future and contribute more micro- and macro- nutrients into the oligotrophic water.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klingmüller |first1=K. |last2=Pozzer |first2=A. |last3=Metzger |first3=S. |last4=Stenchikov |first4=G. L. |last5=Lelieveld |first5=J. |title=Aerosol optical depth trend over the Middle East |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=2016 |volume=16 |page=5063-5073 |doi=10.5194/acp-16-5063-2016}}</ref>
+Evidence of dust transport from Africa over Northern Italy shows that the composition of [[particulate matter]] changed considerably due to the significant increase of [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|crustal element]] concentration, e.g., [[aluminium|Al]], [[silicon|Si]], [[titanium|Ti]], [[potassium|K]], [[Iron|Fe]] and [[calcium|Ca]], however, concentrations of anthropogenic elements remain constant.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonelli |first1=P. |last2=Marcazzan |first2=G. M. Braga |last3=Cereda |first3=E. |title=The Impact of Desert Dust Across the Mediterranean |date=1996 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-017-3354-0 |pages=275–283 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3354-0_27 |language=en |chapter=Elemental Composition and Air Trajectories of African Dust Transported in Northern Italy}}</ref> Saharan Dust is a major source of atmospheric aerosol over the North Atlantic and Mediterranean, and is the most important sedimentary contributor to the [[Mediterranean Basin]].<ref name=":25">{{cite journal |last1=Molinaroli |first1=E. |last2=Guerzoni |first2=S. |last3=Rampazzo |first3=G. |title=Contribution of Saharan dust to the Central Mediterranean Basin |journal=Geological Society of America, Special Paper |date=1993 |volume=284 |pages=303–312}}</ref> These aerosols play a crucial role in supplying macro- and micro- nutrients to its low-nutrient and low-[[chlorophyll]] water, enhancing primary production and affecting the [[bacterioplankton]] community structure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahav |first1=E. |last2=Paytan |first2=A. |last3=Chien |first3=C. |last4=Ovadia |first4=G. |last5=Katz |first5=T. |last6=Herut |first6=B. |title=The impact of atmospheric dry deposition associated microbes on the southeastern Mediterranean Sea surface water following an intense dust storm. |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |date=2016 |volume=3 |issue=127 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2016.00127}}</ref> The Eastern Mediterranean Sea is extremely [[oligotrophic]] <ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siokou-Frangou |first1=I. |last2=Christaki |first2=U. |last3=Mazzocchi |first3=M.G. |last4=Montresor |first4=M. |last5=Ribera d'Alcalá |first5=M. |last6=Vaqué |first6=D. |title=Plankton in the open Mediterranean Sea: a review |journal=Biogeosciences |date=2010 |volume=7 |pages=1543–1586 |doi=10.5194/bg-7-1543-2010}}</ref> and is greatly influenced by desert dusts. In the past decade, the increase of temperature and decrease of precipitation at the Eastern Mediterranean Sea cause soil drying,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lelieveld |first1=J. |last2=Hadjinicolaou |first2=P. |last3=Kostopoulou |first3=E. |last4=Chenoweth |first4=J. |last5=El Maayar |first5=M. |last6=Giannakopoulos |first6=C. |title=Climate change and impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East |journal=Climate Change |date=2012 |volume=114 |pages=667–687 |doi=10.1007/s10584-012-0418-4}}</ref> leading to increased dust emission. Due to [[climate change]], this process is expected to continue in the future and contribute more micro- and macro- nutrients into the oligotrophic water.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klingmüller |first1=K. |last2=Pozzer |first2=A. |last3=Metzger |first3=S. |last4=Stenchikov |first4=G. L. |last5=Lelieveld |first5=J. |title=Aerosol optical depth trend over the Middle East |journal=Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics |date=2016 |volume=16 |pages=5063–5073 |doi=10.5194/acp-16-5063-2016}}</ref>
 === Amazon basin ===
-The majority of soil in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon Basin]], home of the [[Amazon rainforest]], which accounts for about half of the worlds remaining rainforest, is phosphorus deficient.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sanchez|first=P. A.|last2=Bandy|first2=D. E.|last3=Villachica|first3=J. H.|last4=Nicholaides|first4=J. J.|date=1982-05-21|title=Amazon Basin Soils: Management for Continuous Crop Production|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.216.4548.821|journal=Science|language=en|volume=216|issue=4548|pages=821–827|doi=10.1126/science.216.4548.821|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> However, studies have found that phosphorus is the dominant fertility factor in the Amazon Basin when it comes to tree growth,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mercado|first=Lina M.|last2=Patiño|first2=Sandra|last3=Domingues|first3=Tomas F.|last4=Fyllas|first4=Nikolaos M.|last5=Weedon|first5=Graham P.|last6=Sitch|first6=Stephen|last7=Quesada|first7=Carlos Alberto|last8=Phillips|first8=Oliver L.|last9=Aragão|first9=Luiz E. O. C.|last10=Malhi|first10=Yadvinder|last11=Dolman|first11=A. J.|date=2011-11-27|title=Variations in Amazon forest productivity correlated with foliar nutrients and modelled rates of photosynthetic carbon supply|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2011.0045|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=366|issue=1582|pages=3316–3329|doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0045|pmc=PMC3179632|pmid=22006971}}</ref> so phosphorus deficiency could limit tree growth. Estimated turnover rates of phosphorus within soil in the Amazon Basin compared to deposition rates of phosphorus from Saharan dust indicate that the long term health and productivity of the Amazon rainforest is dependent on the supply of phosphorus from Saharan dust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Okin|first=Gregory S.|last2=Mahowald|first2=Natalie|last3=Chadwick|first3=Oliver A.|last4=Artaxo|first4=Paulo|date=2004|title=Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2003GB002145|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|doi=10.1029/2003GB002145|issn=1944-9224}}</ref> While the relative amount of phosphorus deposition from the atmosphere into the Amazon Basin due to Saharan dust is relatively small (roughly 13%) compared to non-dust sources, such as biogenic aerosols and smoke particles, it is comparable to the hydrological loss of phosphorus.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Yu|first=Hongbin|last2=Chin|first2=Mian|last3=Yuan|first3=Tianle|last4=Bian|first4=Huisheng|last5=Remer|first5=Lorraine A.|last6=Prospero|first6=Joseph M.|last7=Omar|first7=Ali|last8=Winker|first8=David|last9=Yang|first9=Yuekui|last10=Zhang|first10=Yan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhibo|date=2015|title=The fertilizing role of African dust in the Amazon rainforest: A first multiyear assessment based on data from Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2015GL063040|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=42|issue=6|pages=1984–1991|doi=10.1002/2015GL063040|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Without the input of phosphorus from Saharan dust, this hydrological loss could eventually deplete the Amazon Basin of its phosphorus content.<ref name=":9" />
+The majority of soil in the [[Amazon basin|Amazon Basin]], home of the [[Amazon rainforest]], which accounts for about half of the worlds remaining rainforest, is phosphorus deficient.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sanchez|first=P. A.|last2=Bandy|first2=D. E.|last3=Villachica|first3=J. H.|last4=Nicholaides|first4=J. J.|date=1982-05-21|title=Amazon Basin Soils: Management for Continuous Crop Production|url=https://www.sciencemag.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.216.4548.821|journal=Science|language=en|volume=216|issue=4548|pages=821–827|doi=10.1126/science.216.4548.821|issn=0036-8075}}</ref> However, studies have found that phosphorus is the dominant fertility factor in the Amazon Basin when it comes to tree growth,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mercado|first=Lina M.|last2=Patiño|first2=Sandra|last3=Domingues|first3=Tomas F.|last4=Fyllas|first4=Nikolaos M.|last5=Weedon|first5=Graham P.|last6=Sitch|first6=Stephen|last7=Quesada|first7=Carlos Alberto|last8=Phillips|first8=Oliver L.|last9=Aragão|first9=Luiz E. O. C.|last10=Malhi|first10=Yadvinder|last11=Dolman|first11=A. J.|date=2011-11-27|title=Variations in Amazon forest productivity correlated with foliar nutrients and modelled rates of photosynthetic carbon supply|url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2011.0045|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=366|issue=1582|pages=3316–3329|doi=10.1098/rstb.2011.0045|pmc=3179632|pmid=22006971}}</ref> so phosphorus deficiency could limit tree growth. Estimated turnover rates of phosphorus within soil in the Amazon Basin compared to deposition rates of phosphorus from Saharan dust indicate that the long term health and productivity of the Amazon rainforest is dependent on the supply of phosphorus from Saharan dust.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Okin|first=Gregory S.|last2=Mahowald|first2=Natalie|last3=Chadwick|first3=Oliver A.|last4=Artaxo|first4=Paulo|date=2004|title=Impact of desert dust on the biogeochemistry of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2003GB002145|journal=Global Biogeochemical Cycles|language=en|volume=18|issue=2|doi=10.1029/2003GB002145|issn=1944-9224}}</ref> While the relative amount of phosphorus deposition from the atmosphere into the Amazon Basin due to Saharan dust is relatively small (roughly 13%) compared to non-dust sources, such as biogenic aerosols and smoke particles, it is comparable to the hydrological loss of phosphorus.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Yu|first=Hongbin|last2=Chin|first2=Mian|last3=Yuan|first3=Tianle|last4=Bian|first4=Huisheng|last5=Remer|first5=Lorraine A.|last6=Prospero|first6=Joseph M.|last7=Omar|first7=Ali|last8=Winker|first8=David|last9=Yang|first9=Yuekui|last10=Zhang|first10=Yan|last11=Zhang|first11=Zhibo|date=2015|title=The fertilizing role of African dust in the Amazon rainforest: A first multiyear assessment based on data from Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations|url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/2015GL063040|journal=Geophysical Research Letters|language=en|volume=42|issue=6|pages=1984–1991|doi=10.1002/2015GL063040|issn=1944-8007}}</ref> Without the input of phosphorus from Saharan dust, this hydrological loss could eventually deplete the Amazon Basin of its phosphorus content.<ref name=":9" />
 === Dust and climate ===
-Saharan dust emissions and transports are sensitive to weather and climate conditions in the source regions. Dense dust clouds reduce the ocean surface exposure to sunlight, hence, reducing the ocean surface heating and therefore influencing the air-sea transfer of [[water vapor|water vapor]] and [[latent heat|latent heat]], which are critical to climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lelieveld |first1=J. |last2=Berresheim |first2=H. |last3=Borrmann |first3=S. |last4=Crutzen |first4=P. j. |last5=Dentener |first5=F. j. |last6=Fischer |first6=H. |last7=Feichter |first7=J. |last8=Flatau |first8=P. J. |last9=Heland |first9=J. |last10=Holzinger |first10=R. |last11=Korrmann |first11=R. |last12=Lawrence |first12=M. G. |last13=Levin |first13=Z. |last14=Markowicz |first14=K. M. |last15=Mihalopoulos |first15=N. |last16=Minikin |first16=A. |last17=Ramanathan |first17=V. |last18=de Reus |first18=M. |last19=Roelofs |first19=G. J. |last20=Scheeren |first20=H. A. |last21=Sciare |first21=J. |last22=Schlager |first22=H. |last23=Schultz |first23=M. |last24=Siegmund |first24=P. |last25=Steil |first25=B. |last26=Stephanou |first26=E. G. |last27=Stier |first27=P. |last28=Traub |first28=M. |last29=Warneke |first29=C. |last30=Williams |first30=J. |last31=Ziereis |first31=H. |title=Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean |journal=Science |date=2002 |volume=298 |issue=5594 |page=794-799 |doi=10.1126/science.1075457}}</ref> When the dust suspends over the Tropical Atlantic, the reduction of heating could contribute to the interhemispheric tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperature anomaly patterns that are related to the Soudano-Sahel drought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neil Ward |first1=M. |title=Diagnosis and Short-Lead Time Prediction of Summer Rainfall in Tropical North Africa at Interannual and Multidecadal Timescales |journal=Journal of Climate |date=1998 |volume=11 |issue=12 |page=3167–3191 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3167:DASLTP>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Hence, increased dust could lead to longer or more intense drought. In addition, the West African rainfall is well-correlated with the frequency and the intensity of the Atlantic [[hurricane|hurricanes]], suggesting less hurricane activities during dry phases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prospero |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Lamb |first2=Peter J. |title=African Droughts and Dust Transport to the Caribbean: Climate Change Implications |journal=Science |date=2003 |volume=302 |issue=1024 |doi=10.1126/science.1089915}}</ref> Some of the dustiest years in Barbados coincide with the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) events,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Propero |first1=Joseph M. |title=Saharan Dust Impacts and Climate Change |journal=Oceanography |date=2006 |volume=19 |page=60-61 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2006.65}}</ref> however, it is still an open question of how [[global warming|global warming]] will influence on dust emissions in the Sahara.
+Saharan dust emissions and transports are sensitive to weather and climate conditions in the source regions. Dense dust clouds reduce the ocean surface exposure to sunlight, hence, reducing the ocean surface heating and therefore influencing the air-sea transfer of [[water vapor]] and [[latent heat]], which are critical to climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lelieveld |first1=J. |last2=Berresheim |first2=H. |last3=Borrmann |first3=S. |last4=Crutzen |first4=P. j. |last5=Dentener |first5=F. j. |last6=Fischer |first6=H. |last7=Feichter |first7=J. |last8=Flatau |first8=P. J. |last9=Heland |first9=J. |last10=Holzinger |first10=R. |last11=Korrmann |first11=R. |last12=Lawrence |first12=M. G. |last13=Levin |first13=Z. |last14=Markowicz |first14=K. M. |last15=Mihalopoulos |first15=N. |last16=Minikin |first16=A. |last17=Ramanathan |first17=V. |last18=de Reus |first18=M. |last19=Roelofs |first19=G. J. |last20=Scheeren |first20=H. A. |last21=Sciare |first21=J. |last22=Schlager |first22=H. |last23=Schultz |first23=M. |last24=Siegmund |first24=P. |last25=Steil |first25=B. |last26=Stephanou |first26=E. G. |last27=Stier |first27=P. |last28=Traub |first28=M. |last29=Warneke |first29=C. |last30=Williams |first30=J. |last31=Ziereis |first31=H. |title=Global Air Pollution Crossroads over the Mediterranean |journal=Science |date=2002 |volume=298 |issue=5594 |pages=794–799 |doi=10.1126/science.1075457}}</ref> When the dust suspends over the Tropical Atlantic, the reduction of heating could contribute to the interhemispheric tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperature anomaly patterns that are related to the Soudano-Sahel drought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neil Ward |first1=M. |title=Diagnosis and Short-Lead Time Prediction of Summer Rainfall in Tropical North Africa at Interannual and Multidecadal Timescales |journal=Journal of Climate |date=1998 |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=3167–3191 |doi=10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3167:DASLTP>2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Hence, increased dust could lead to longer or more intense drought. In addition, the West African rainfall is well-correlated with the frequency and the intensity of the Atlantic [[hurricane]]s, suggesting less hurricane activities during dry phases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prospero |first1=Joseph M. |last2=Lamb |first2=Peter J. |title=African Droughts and Dust Transport to the Caribbean: Climate Change Implications |journal=Science |date=2003 |volume=302 |issue=1024 |doi=10.1126/science.1089915}}</ref> Some of the dustiest years in Barbados coincide with the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño Southern Oscillation]] (ENSO) events,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Propero |first1=Joseph M. |title=Saharan Dust Impacts and Climate Change |journal=Oceanography |date=2006 |volume=19 |pages=60–61 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2006.65}}</ref> however, it is still an open question of how [[global warming]] will influence on dust emissions in the Sahara.
 === Transport of microbial communities ===
-Saharan dust storms can transport particulate matter that includes different local [[Microorganism|microorganisms]] over continental scales, ultimately depositing them where those microorganisms are not natively found.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Weil|first=Tobias|last2=De Filippo|first2=Carlotta|last3=Albanese|first3=Davide|last4=Donati|first4=Claudio|last5=Pindo|first5=Massimo|last6=Pavarini|first6=Lorenzo|last7=Carotenuto|first7=Federico|last8=Pasqui|first8=Massimiliano|last9=Poto|first9=Luisa|last10=Gabrieli|first10=Jacopo|last11=Barbante|first11=Carlo|date=2017|title=Legal immigrants: invasion of alien microbial communities during winter occurring desert dust storms|url=http://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-017-0249-7|journal=Microbiome|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=32|doi=10.1186/s40168-017-0249-7|issn=2049-2618|pmc=PMC5345179|pmid=28283029|via=}}</ref> Research shows that significant portions of microbial communities can be transported over large distances in these dust storms.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Marone|first=Alioune|last2=Kane|first2=Coumba Touré|last3=Mbengue|first3=Malick|last4=Jenkins|first4=Gregory S.|last5=Niang|first5=Demba Ndao|last6=Drame|first6=Mamadou Simina|last7=Gernand|first7=Jeremy M.|date=2020|title=Characterization of Bacteria on Aerosols From Dust Events in Dakar, Senegal, West Africa|url=https://doi.org/%2010.1029/2019GH000216|journal=GeoHealth|volume=4|issue=6|pages=|doi=10.1029/2019gh000216|issn=2471-1403|pmc=PMC7262684|pmid=32490303|via=}}</ref> These microbial communities are highly stress-resistant and can contain destructive fungal and bacterial [[Pathogen|pathogens.]]<ref name=":7" /> Within Africa, but up to thousands of kilometers away from the dust source, high Saharan dust concentrations have been correlated to increased cases of [[asthma]], [[bronchitis]], [[meningitis]], and [[Respiratory tract infection|acute respiratory infections.]]<ref name=":8" />
+Saharan dust storms can transport particulate matter that includes different local [[microorganism]]s over continental scales, ultimately depositing them where those microorganisms are not natively found.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Weil|first=Tobias|last2=De Filippo|first2=Carlotta|last3=Albanese|first3=Davide|last4=Donati|first4=Claudio|last5=Pindo|first5=Massimo|last6=Pavarini|first6=Lorenzo|last7=Carotenuto|first7=Federico|last8=Pasqui|first8=Massimiliano|last9=Poto|first9=Luisa|last10=Gabrieli|first10=Jacopo|last11=Barbante|first11=Carlo|date=2017|title=Legal immigrants: invasion of alien microbial communities during winter occurring desert dust storms|url=http://microbiomejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40168-017-0249-7|journal=Microbiome|language=en|volume=5|issue=1|pages=32|doi=10.1186/s40168-017-0249-7|issn=2049-2618|pmc=5345179|pmid=28283029|via=}}</ref> Research shows that significant portions of microbial communities can be transported over large distances in these dust storms.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Marone|first=Alioune|last2=Kane|first2=Coumba Touré|last3=Mbengue|first3=Malick|last4=Jenkins|first4=Gregory S.|last5=Niang|first5=Demba Ndao|last6=Drame|first6=Mamadou Simina|last7=Gernand|first7=Jeremy M.|date=2020|title=Characterization of Bacteria on Aerosols From Dust Events in Dakar, Senegal, West Africa|url=https://doi.org/%2010.1029/2019GH000216|journal=GeoHealth|volume=4|issue=6|pages=|doi=10.1029/2019gh000216|issn=2471-1403|pmc=7262684|pmid=32490303|via=}}</ref> These microbial communities are highly stress-resistant and can contain destructive fungal and bacterial [[Pathogen|pathogens.]]<ref name=":7" /> Within Africa, but up to thousands of kilometers away from the dust source, high Saharan dust concentrations have been correlated to increased cases of [[asthma]], [[bronchitis]], [[meningitis]], and [[Respiratory tract infection|acute respiratory infections.]]<ref name=":8" />
 === Human impacts ===
-While Saharan dust may fertilize the ocean and land, human exposure to this desert dust combined with organic matter can cause potential infections of the lungs.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Korenyi-Both|first=AL|last2=Kornyi-Both|first2=AL|last3=Molnar|first3=AC|last4=Fidelus-Gort|first4=R|date=1992|title=Al  Eskan  disease:  Desert  Storm  pneumonitis|url=|journal=Military Medicine|volume=157|pages=452-462|via=}}</ref> Studies have shown that Saharan dust may contain toxic biological allergens and irritants.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal|last=Garrison|first=V.H.|last2=Foreman|first2=W.T.|last3=Genualdi|first3=S.|last4=Griffin|first4=D.W.|last5=Kellogg|first5=C.A.|last6=Majewski|first6=M.S.|date=2006|title=Saharan dust – a carrier of persistent organic pollutants, metals and microbes to the Caribbean?|url=|journal=Revista de Biología Tropical|volume=54|pages=S9-S21|via=}}</ref> It is also possible that non-biological compounds in dust can generate adverse health effects, including [[Respiratory disease|respiratory]] (e.g., asthma, [[Tracheitis|tracheitis,]] [[pneumonia]], allergic [[rhinitis]] and [[silicosis]]), [[Cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular]] (e.g., [[stroke]]), and [[cardiopulmonary]] diseases. In addition, [[conjunctivitis]], skin irritations, [[meningococcal disease]], and [[coccidioidomycosis]] are found to be related to dust storms.<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Goudie|first=A.S.|date=2014|title=Desert dust and human health disorders|url=|journal=Environment International|volume=63|pages=101-113|via=}}</ref> For long periods of time, the dust concentration in some areas exceeds several times the maximum levels suggested from the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organization.]]<ref>{{Cite web|last=World Health Organization. Occupational and Environmental Health Team.|first=|date=2006|title=WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide : global update 2005 : summary of risk assessment.|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/69477|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The concentration of particulate matters (PM) also elevates to hazardous level that could threaten human health and early life. Exposure of PM can cause neonatal mortality either through mother exposure or through increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in neonates.
+While Saharan dust may fertilize the ocean and land, human exposure to this desert dust combined with organic matter can cause potential infections of the lungs.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|last=Korenyi-Both|first=AL|last2=Kornyi-Both|first2=AL|last3=Molnar|first3=AC|last4=Fidelus-Gort|first4=R|date=1992|title=Al  Eskan  disease:  Desert  Storm  pneumonitis|url=|journal=Military Medicine|volume=157|pages=452–462|via=}}</ref> Studies have shown that Saharan dust may contain toxic biological allergens and irritants.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal|last=Garrison|first=V.H.|last2=Foreman|first2=W.T.|last3=Genualdi|first3=S.|last4=Griffin|first4=D.W.|last5=Kellogg|first5=C.A.|last6=Majewski|first6=M.S.|date=2006|title=Saharan dust – a carrier of persistent organic pollutants, metals and microbes to the Caribbean?|url=|journal=Revista de Biología Tropical|volume=54|pages=S9-S21|via=}}</ref> It is also possible that non-biological compounds in dust can generate adverse health effects, including [[Respiratory disease|respiratory]] (e.g., asthma, [[tracheitis]], [[pneumonia]], allergic [[rhinitis]] and [[silicosis]]), [[Cardiovascular disease|cardiovascular]] (e.g., [[stroke]]), and [[cardiopulmonary]] diseases. In addition, [[conjunctivitis]], skin irritations, [[meningococcal disease]], and [[coccidioidomycosis]] are found to be related to dust storms.<ref name=":28">{{Cite journal|last=Goudie|first=A.S.|date=2014|title=Desert dust and human health disorders|url=|journal=Environment International|volume=63|pages=101–113|via=}}</ref> For long periods of time, the dust concentration in some areas exceeds several times the maximum levels suggested from the [[World Health Organization]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=World Health Organization. Occupational and Environmental Health Team.|first=|date=2006|title=WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide : global update 2005 : summary of risk assessment.|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/69477|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=}}</ref> The concentration of particulate matters (PM) also elevates to hazardous level that could threaten human health and early life. Exposure of PM can cause neonatal mortality either through mother exposure or through increased risks of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders in neonates.
 == References ==
+{{Reflist}}
+{{Uncategorized|date=February 2021}}