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Nature-based solutions (NBS) refers to the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling socio-environmental challenges. The challenges include issues such as climate change, water security, water pollution, food security, human health, biodiversity loss and disaster risk management.

The NBS definition by the European Commission states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".^[1] In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that “nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services.”^[2] Research and Innovation projects on NBS funded by the EU Framework Programme need to respond to this definition.^[3]

The Nature-based Solutions Initiative meanwhile defines them as "actions that work with and enhance nature so as to help people adapt to change and disasters". With NBS, healthy, resilient and diverse ecosystems (whether natural, managed or newly created) can provide solutions for the benefit of societies and overall biodiversity.^[4]

For instance, the restoration and/or protection of mangroves along coastlines utilizes a nature-based solution to accomplish several goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities^[5] and sequester CO₂^[6]. They also provide safe nurseries for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining fisheries that local populations may depend on. Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control coastal erosion resulting from sea level rise. Similarly, green roofs or walls are nature-based solutions that can be used in cities to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture storm water, abate pollution, and act as carbon sinks, while enhancing biodiversity.

Conservation approaches and environmental management initiatives have been carried out for decades. More recently, progress is being made in better articulating the benefits of such nature-based solutions to human well-being. Even if the term itself is still being framed,^[7] examples of nature-based solutions can already be found all over the world.

Recent studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature-based solutions in urban areas, ^[8]^[9]^[10] while nature-based solutions are increasingly being incorporated into mainstream national and international policies and programmes (e.g. climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms), with increasing attention being given to NBS by the European Commission since 2013, as an integral part of the EU's research & innovation (R&I) policy.^[11] The UN has also tried to promote a shift in perspective towards NBS: the theme for World Water Day 2018 was "Nature for Water", while UN-Water's accompanying UN World Water Development Report was titled "Nature-based Solutions for Water".^[12] The 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, meanwhile, highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change and a "Nature Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by China and New Zealand.^[13]

Background

Societies increasingly face challenges such as climate change, urbanization, jeopardized food security and water resource provision, and disaster risk. One approach to answer these challenges is to singularly rely on technological strategies. An alternative approach is to holistically manage (socio-)ecological systems in order to sustain and potentially increase the delivery of ecosystem services to human populations. In this context, nature-based solutions (NBS) have recently been put forward by practitioners and quickly thereafter by policymakers.^[11] These solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.

While ecosystem services are often valued in terms of immediate benefits to human well-being and economy, NBS focus on the benefits to people and the environment itself, to allow for sustainable solutions that are able to respond to environmental change and hazards in the long-term. NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and poverty reduction, socio-economic development, and governance principles.

With respect to water issues, NBS can, according to the World Water Development Report 2018 by UN-Water^[14], achieve the following:

Use natural processes to enhance water availability (e.g., soil moisture retention, groundwater recharge),
Improve water quality (e.g., natural wetlands and constructed wetlands to treat wastewater; riparian buffer strips), and
Reduce risks associated with water‐related disasters and climate change (e.g., floodplain restoration, green roofs).

Related concepts

In 2015, the European network BiodivERsA highlighted how NBS relate to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering.^[15] NBS are strongly connected to ideas such as natural systems agriculture,^[16] natural solutions,^[17] ecosystem-based adaptation,^[18] adaptation services,^[19] natural infrastructure,^[20]^[21] green infrastructure^[22], and ecological engineering.^[23]^[24] For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate change adaptation and mitigation by organisations like the United Nations Environment Programme and non-governmental organisations such as The Nature Conservancy. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach".^[18]

Likewise, natural infrastructure is defined as a "strategically planned and managed network of natural lands, such as forests and wetlands, working landscapes, and other open spaces that conserves or enhances ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations";^[20]^[21] and green infrastructure refers to an "interconnected network of green spaces that conserves natural systems and provides assorted benefits to human populations".^[22]

Similarly, the concept of ecological engineering generally refers to "protecting, restoring (i.e. ecosystem restoration) or modifying ecological systems to increase the quantity, quality, and sustainability of particular services they provide, or to build new ecological systems that provide services that would otherwise be provided through more conventional engineering, based on non-renewable resources".^[23]^[24]

Definitions

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits,^[25] with common societal challenges cited as being climate change, food security, disaster risks, water security, social and economic development as well as human health.

Types

In 2014-2015, the European network BiodivERsA^[26] mobilized a range of scientists, research donors, and stakeholders, proposing a typology characterizing NBS along two gradients:^[15]

"How much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and
"How many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS".

The typology highlights that NBS can involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, or even the creation of new ecosystems) and is based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximize the delivery of each service and simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (Figure 2):

Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems

Type 1 NBS consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of ES both inside and outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated to extreme weather conditions and provide benefits and opportunities to local populations; and the establishment of marine protected areas to conserve biodiversity within these areas while exporting biomass into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is connected to, for example, the concept of biosphere reserves which incorporate core protected areas for nature conservation and buffer zones and transition areas where people live and work in a sustainable way.

Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes

Type 2 NBS corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types improve the delivery of selected ES compared to what would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality; using existing agrobiodiversity to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to concepts like natural systems agriculture,^[16] agro-ecology,^[27] and evolutionary-orientated forestry.^[28]

Type 3 – Managing ecosystems in extensive ways

Type 3 NBS consists of managing ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and greening cities.

Type 1 and 2 would typically fall within the IUCN NBS framework, whereas Type 2 and moreover Type 3 are often exemplified by the EC for turning natural capital into a source for green growth and sustainable development.

Hybrid solutions

Hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be required to fulfil multi-functionality and sustainability goals. Similarly, a constructed wetland can be developed as a Type 3 NBS but, when well-established, may subsequently be preserved and surveyed as a Type 1 solution.

Objectives and framing

The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.^[29] However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.^[15] For instance, the IUCN^[30] defines NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits". This framing puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of "Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services".

In the context of the ongoing political debate on jobs and growth (main drivers of the current EU policy agenda), the European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning natural capital into a source for green growth and sustainable development.^[31] Within this viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges are "solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".^[32]

This is a somewhat broader framing of the concept, placing economy and social assets at the heart of NBS on a par with the importance of sustaining environmental conditions. It shares similarities with the definition proposed by Maes and Jacobs (2015)^[33], describing NBS as "any transition to a use of ES with decreased input of non-renewable natural capital and increased investment in renewable natural processes". Under this definition, the development and evaluation of NBS spans three basic requirements:

Decreasing fossil fuel input per produced unit;
Lowering systemic trade-offs and increasing synergies between ES; and
Increasing labour input and jobs.

Within this definition, therefore, Nature is seen as a tool to inspire more systemic solutions to societal problems.

Whatever the definition used, the promotion of sustainability and the increased role of natural, self-sustained processes relying on biodiversity are inherent characteristics of NBS. They constitute actions easily demonstrable as positive for a wide range of stakeholders, as they bring about benefits at environmental, economic, and societal levels. As a consequence, the concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms),^[2]^[11]^[34], although NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges.^[35]^[36]

The potential of NBS for transformative change towards sustainability has recently been explored.^[37] One study found that NBS can drive profound and substantial changes towards sustainability in local social-ecological systems through a combination of nature's values, knowledge, community engagement, and nature protection and sustainable management.^[38] Further studies that assess the contributions of NBS towards transformative change at broader scales, for example in relation to planetary boundaries, are needed.

Examples

Demonstrating the benefits of nature and healthy ecosystems, as well as showcasing the return on investment they can offer, is necessary in order not only to increase awareness, but also to provide support and guidance on how to implement NBS. A large number of initiatives around the world already highlight the effectiveness of NBS approaches to address a wide range of societal challenges.

Worldwide

The following table shows examples from around the world:

Implementing institutions	Societal challenges addressed	Location	Ecosystem types(s)	Description	NBS approaches used	NBS Typology^[15]	Source
Rwanda Natural Resources Authority, World Resources Institute and IUCN	Food security, water security, disaster risk	Rwanda	Forest	Forest landscape restoration as a national priority	Forest Landscape Restoration, Ecological restoration, Ecosystem-based Mitigation	Intermediate Type 1/ Type 2	^[25]
Wetlands International, Both ENDS, WWF and IUCN	Climate change, disaster risk, food security	Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and Malaysia	Coastal	Community based coastal habitat restoration	Ecological restoration (coastal habitat restoration)	Type 1	^[39]
IUCN and local partners	Water security, disaster risk	Guatemala & Mexico	Rural, mountain, freshwater ecosystem, river, watershed	Implementing transboundary water governance through community ecosystem-based action in the Tacana watersheds	Natural Infrastructure, Ecological Restoration, Forest Landscape Restoration, Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction, Ecosystem-based Adaptation	Intermediate Type 1/Type 2	^[25]
The European Commission, Wageningen University, Ecorys, ECNC, Grontmij, WWF	Climate change	Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic and Ukraine	Mountain	Carpathian integrated assessment of vulnerability to climate change and ecosystem-based adaptation measures	Ecosystem-based management	Type 2	CARPIVIA project
The Nature Conservancy	Climate change, food security	North America	Rural	Integrative strategy to reduce the vulnerability of agricultural ecosystems to drought and other extreme precipitation events	Ecosystem-based management	Type 2	^[39]
UNEP; Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme	Climate change, disaster risk	Oceania (Fuji)	Coastal, urban	A comparative analysis of ecosystem-based approaches and engineering options to safeguard Lami Town (Fuji) from severe storms	Ecosystem restoration; and ecological engineering	Type 1 and Type 2	^[39]
City of Barcelona; City of Lisbon	Climate change, human health	Spain; Portugal	Urban	Developing the Barcelona & Lisbon green infrastructure and biodiversity plan to mitigate climate change and improve well-being	Green Infrastructure	Intermediate Type 2/Type 3	^[30]^[40]
City of London	Climate change, human health	London	Urban	Greening London's roof tops to mitigate climate change and improve human health, while increasing biodiversity	Green Roofs	Type 3	^[41]

India

East Kolkata wetlands

In 2018, The Hindu reported that the East Kolkata wetlands, the world's largest organic sewage treatment facility, had been used to organically clean the sewage of Kolkata for several decades through the use of algae. This natural system, in use since the 1930s, was discovered by Dhrubajyoti Ghosh, an ecologist and municipal engineer in the 1970s, while he was working in the region.^[42] Ghosh worked for decades to protect the wetlands.^[43] It had been a practice in Kolkata, one of the five largest cities in India, for the municipal authorities to pump sewage into shallow ponds (bheris).^[44] Under the heat of the tropical sun, algae proliferated in these bheris, converting the sewage into clean water, which in turn was used by villagers to grow paddy and vegetables. This almost 100-year-old system treats 750 million litres of wastewater per day, providing livelihoods for 100,000 people in the vicinity.^[45] For his work, Ghosh was included in the UN Global 500 Roll of Honour in 1990 and received the Luc Hoffmann award in 2016.^[46]

Practical implementation

There is currently no accepted basis by which a government agency, municipality, or private company can systematically assess the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability of a particular nature-based solution. However, a number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide effective and appropriate implementation,^[8]^[10]^[47] in order to upscale NBS in practice in a variety of situations. One primary principle, for example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation norms^[48]^[49].

NBS are also determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge. NBS are an integral part of the overall design of policies, and measures or actions, to address specific challenges. Finally, NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions) and are applied at the landscape scale.

Implementing NBS requires political, economic, and scientific challenges to be tackled. First and foremost, private sector investment is needed to supplement traditional sources of capital such as public funding or philanthropy. The challenge is therefore to provide a robust evidence base for the contribution of nature to economic growth and jobs, and to demonstrate the economic viability of these solutions – compared to technological ones – on a timescale compatible with that of global change. Furthermore, it requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy schemes, and the creation of opportunities for conservation finance, to name a few. Indeed, such measures will be needed to scale up NBS interventions and strengthen their impact in mitigating the world's most pressing challenges.^[49]

Projects supported by the European Union

Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (ThinkNature^[50]) to promote the co-design, testing, and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated way.^[1] The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS.^[51] The project is part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and will run for 3 years. There are a total of 17 international partners involved, including the Technical University of Crete (Project Leader), the University of Helsinki and BiodivERsA.

In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the Estonian Republic of the Council of the European Union, a conference called “Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to Common-use” was organized by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and the University of Tallinn.^[52] This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS launched by the European Commission and by the EU Member States, focusing on policy and governance of NBS, research, and innovation.

Nature-based Solutions in the Paris Agreement

In recognition of the importance of natural ecosystems for mitigation and adaptation, the Paris Agreement calls on all Parties to acknowledge “the importance of the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of the greenhouse gases” and to “note the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognized by some cultures as Mother Earth”. It then includes in its Articles several references to nature-based solutions. For example, Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt “…policy approaches and positive incentives for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and the role of conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries; and alternative policy approaches, such as joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and sustainable management of forests, while reaffirming the importance of incentivizing, as appropriate, non-carbon benefits associated with such approaches”. Article 7.1 further encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. In total, the Agreement refers to Nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis ^[53] of all Nationally Determined Contributions^[54] submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges, suggesting broad consensus for the role of Nature in helping to meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-the-ground.^[55]

Nature-based solutions at the UN climate action summit in September 2019

In the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, nature-based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by China and New Zealand.^[56]

History

The term NBS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s (in particular the International Union for Conservation of Nature and the World Bank) and thereafter by policymakers in Europe (most notably the European Commission).^[57]^[58]^[59] It was used in the context of finding new solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change effects, whilst simultaneously protecting biodiversity and improving sustainable livelihoods.

The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.^[60] The term was also adopted by European policymakers, in particular by the EC, in a report^[31] stressing that NBS can offer innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a green economy. The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of the Global Climate Action Summit in California in September 2018.^[61]

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^ Cohen-Shacham, E.; Walters, G.; Janzen, C.; Maginnis, S., eds. (2016-08-04). "Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges". doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2016.13.en. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Anderson, Carl C.; Renaud, Fabrice G. (2021-02-19). "A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The 'why', 'when', and 'how' of success for disaster risk reduction measures". Ambio. doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4. ISSN 0044-7447.
^ ^a ^b Cohen-Shacham, Emmanuelle; Andrade, Angela; Dalton, James; Dudley, Nigel; Jones, Mike; Kumar, Chetan; Maginnis, Stewart; Maynard, Simone; Nelson, Cara R.; Renaud, Fabrice G.; Welling, Rebecca (2019). "Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions". Environmental Science & Policy. 98: 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014. ISSN 1462-9011.
^ "ThinkNature | Platform for Nature-Based Solutions". ThinkNature. Retrieved 2021-09-05.
^ Nikolaidis, Nikolaos P.; Kolokotsa, Dionyssia; Banwart, Steven A. (2017-03-16). "Nature-based solutions: business". Nature. 543 (7645): 315. Bibcode:2017Natur.543..315N. doi:10.1038/543315d. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28300105.
^ "Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017". Retrieved 21 March 2018.
^ "Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform". www.nbspolicyplatform.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13.
^ "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | UNFCCC". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2018-09-13.
^ "Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?". July 2016. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ "Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit" (PDF). Climate Action Summit 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
^ Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; Boissezon, Birgit de; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). "Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges". Environmental Research. 159: 509–518. Bibcode:2017ER....159..509F. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032. PMID 28886502. S2CID 42573101.
^ MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio. Washington D.C.: World Bank.
^ Mittermeier, R. et al. 2008. A Climate For Life: Meeting the Global Challenge. Arlington, VA: International League of Conservation Photographers.
^ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.
^ "Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda". Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda. Retrieved 2018-09-13.

External links

Nature-based Solutions Initiative - consolidating evidence for the effectiveness of nature-based solutions to climate change adaptation.
Nature-based Solutions Policy Platform - explore how the world's nations including nature in their climate change policy.
What are nature-based solutions to climate change? An animation produced the Nature-based Solutions Initiative.
Video from presentation: Nature-Based Solutions: Pandora box or reconciling concept? (EKLIPSE & BiodivERsA webinar)
Sustainable cities: Nature-based solutions in urban design (The Nature Conservancy): https://vimeo.com/155849692
"Nature-Based Solutions". European Commission. Retrieved 2018-01-19.
Video: Think Nature: A guide to using nature-based solutions (IUCN)
Shortfilm by Greta Thunberg and George Monbiot: Nature Now 2020

[:0-1] "Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission". Retrieved 10 December 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

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[3] "Horizon 2020 Workprogramme 2018-2020" (PDF). Retrieved 10 December 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

[4] Eggermont, Hilde; Balian, Estelle; Azevedo, José Manuel N.; Beumer, Victor; Brodin, Tomas; Claudet, Joachim; Fady, Bruno; Grube, Martin; Keune, Hans (2015). "Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe" (PDF). Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society. 24 (4): 243–248. doi:10.14512/gaia.24.4.9.

[5] Marois, Darryl E.; Mitsch, William J. (2015-01-02). "Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review". International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 11 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1080/21513732.2014.997292. ISSN 2151-3732.

[6] Inoue, Tomomi (2018-09-01), "Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves", Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 73–99, retrieved 2021-09-05

[7] "'Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think". Nature. 541 (7636): 133–134. 2017-01-12. Bibcode:2017Natur.541R.133.. doi:10.1038/541133b. PMID 28079099. S2CID 4455842.

[:3-8] Raymond, Christopher M.; Frantzeskaki, Niki; Kabisch, Nadja; Berry, Pam; Breil, Margaretha; Nita, Mihai Razvan; Geneletti, Davide; Calfapietra, Carlo (2017). "A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas". Environmental Science & Policy. 77: 15–24. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008. ISSN 1462-9011.

[9] Bush, Judy; Doyon, Andréanne (2019). "Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute?". Cities. 95: 102483. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483. ISSN 0264-2751.

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[:5-11] Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; de Boissezon, Birgit; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). "Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges". Environmental Research. 159: 509–518. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032. ISSN 0013-9351.

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[34] Dhyani, Shalini; Karki, Madhav; Gupta, Anil Kumar (2020), "Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy", Nature-based Solutions for Resilient Ecosystems and Societies, Singapore: Springer Singapore, pp. 1–26, retrieved 2021-09-05

[35] Wamsler, C.; Wickenberg, B.; Hanson, H.; Alkan Olsson, J.; Stålhammar, S.; Björn, H.; Falck, H.; Gerell, D.; Oskarsson, T.; Simonsson, E.; Torffvit, F. (2020). "Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation". Journal of Cleaner Production. 247: 119154. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154. ISSN 0959-6526.

[36] Chausson, Alexandre; Turner, Beth; Seddon, Dan; Chabaneix, Nicole; Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Kapos, Valerie; Key, Isabel; Roe, Dilys; Smith, Alison; Woroniecki, Stephen; Seddon, Nathalie (2020-09-09). "Mapping the effectiveness of nature‐based solutions for climate change adaptation". Global Change Biology. 26 (11): 6134–6155. doi:10.1111/gcb.15310. ISSN 1354-1013.

[37] Welden, E. A.; Chausson, Alexandre; Melanidis, Marina S. (2021). "Leveraging Nature-based Solutions for transformation: Reconnecting people and nature". People and Nature. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1002/pan3.10212. ISSN 2575-8314.

[38] Palomo, Ignacio; Locatelli, Bruno; Otero, Iago; Colloff, Matthew; Crouzat, Emilie; Cuni-Sanchez, Aida; Gómez-Baggethun, Erik; González-García, Alberto; Grêt-Regamey, Adrienne; Jiménez-Aceituno, Amanda; Martín-López, Berta; Pascual, Unai; Zafra-Calvo, Noelia; Bruley, Enora; Fischborn, Marie; Metz, Rosmarie; Lavorel, Sandra (2021-05-14). "Assessing nature-based solutions for transformative change". One Earth. 4 (5): 730–741. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.013. hdl:20.500.11850/484330. ISSN 2590-3322.

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[Oppla24-40] Oppla Nature-based Solutions Case Studies http://info.oppla.eu/

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[48] Anderson, Carl C.; Renaud, Fabrice G. (2021-02-19). "A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The 'why', 'when', and 'how' of success for disaster risk reduction measures". Ambio. doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4. ISSN 0044-7447.

[:6-49] Cohen-Shacham, Emmanuelle; Andrade, Angela; Dalton, James; Dudley, Nigel; Jones, Mike; Kumar, Chetan; Maginnis, Stewart; Maynard, Simone; Nelson, Cara R.; Renaud, Fabrice G.; Welling, Rebecca (2019). "Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions". Environmental Science & Policy. 98: 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014. ISSN 1462-9011.

[50] "ThinkNature | Platform for Nature-Based Solutions". ThinkNature. Retrieved 2021-09-05.

[51] Nikolaidis, Nikolaos P.; Kolokotsa, Dionyssia; Banwart, Steven A. (2017-03-16). "Nature-based solutions: business". Nature. 543 (7645): 315. Bibcode:2017Natur.543..315N. doi:10.1038/543315d. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28300105.

[52] "Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017". Retrieved 21 March 2018.

[53] "Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform". www.nbspolicyplatform.org. Retrieved 2018-09-13.

[54] "Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | UNFCCC". unfccc.int. Retrieved 2018-09-13.

[55] "Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?". July 2016. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[56] "Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit" (PDF). Climate Action Summit 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 22 October 2019.

[57] Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; Boissezon, Birgit de; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). "Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges". Environmental Research. 159: 509–518. Bibcode:2017ER....159..509F. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032. PMID 28886502. S2CID 42573101.

[MacKinnon11-58] MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio. Washington D.C.: World Bank.

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[60] IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.

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@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 '''Nature-based solutions''' ('''NBS''') refers to the [[sustainable management]] and use of nature for tackling socio-environmental challenges. The challenges include issues such as [[climate change]], [[water security]], [[water pollution]], [[food security]], [[human health]], [[biodiversity loss]] and [[disaster risk reduction|disaster]] [[risk management]].
-The [https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs NBS definition] by the [[European Commission]] states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]].  Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs|title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that “nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services.” <ref>{{Cite book|title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects|last1=Wild|first1=Tom|last2=Freitas|first2=Tiago|last3=Vandewoestijne|first3=Sofie|date=2020|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf}}</ref> Research and Innovation projects on NBS funded by the EU Framework Programme need to respond to this definition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/sites/horizon2020/files/climat_h2020_wp_2018-2020_draft.pdf|title=Horizon 2020 Workprogramme 2018-2020|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref>
+The [https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs NBS definition] by the [[European Commission]] states that these solutions are "inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build [[Resilience (engineering and construction)|resilience]]. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes, and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs|title=Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref> In 2020, the EC definition was updated to further emphasise that “nature-based solutions must benefit biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services.”<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects|last1=Wild|first1=Tom|last2=Freitas|first2=Tiago|last3=Vandewoestijne|first3=Sofie|date=2020|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf}}</ref> Research and Innovation projects on NBS funded by the EU Framework Programme need to respond to this definition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/sites/horizon2020/files/climat_h2020_wp_2018-2020_draft.pdf|title=Horizon 2020 Workprogramme 2018-2020|last=|first=|date=|website=|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019}}</ref>
 The Nature-based Solutions Initiative meanwhile defines them as "actions that work with and enhance nature so as to help people adapt to change and disasters". With NBS, healthy, resilient and diverse [[ecosystems]] (whether natural, managed or newly created) can provide solutions for the benefit of societies and overall [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf}}</ref>
-For instance, the restoration or protection of [[mangroves]] along coastlines utilizes a nature-based solution to accomplish several things. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities and sequester CO<sub>2.</sub>. They also provide safe nurseries for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining populations of fish that local populations may depend on. Additionally, the mangrove forests can help control [[coastal erosion]] resulting from [[sea level rise]]. Similarly, in cities [[green roofs]] or walls are nature-based solutions that can be used to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture storm water, abate [[pollution]], and act as carbon sinks, while enhancing [[biodiversity]].
+For instance, the restoration and/or protection of [[mangroves]] along coastlines utilizes a nature-based solution to accomplish several goals. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marois|first=Darryl E.|last2=Mitsch|first2=William J.|date=2015-01-02|title=Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|journal=International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management|volume=11|issue=1|pages=71–83|doi=10.1080/21513732.2014.997292|issn=2151-3732}}</ref> and sequester CO<sub>2</sub><ref>{{Citation|last=Inoue|first=Tomomi|title=Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves|date=2018-09-01|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3|work=Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems|pages=73–99|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|access-date=2021-09-05}}</ref>. They also provide safe nurseries for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining fisheries that local populations may depend on. Additionally, mangrove forests can help to control [[coastal erosion]] resulting from [[sea level rise]]. Similarly, [[green roofs]] or walls are nature-based solutions that can be used in cities to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture storm water, abate [[pollution]], and act as carbon sinks, while enhancing [[biodiversity]].
-Conservation approaches and environment management initiatives have been carried out for decades. What is new is that the benefits of such nature-based solutions to human well-being have been articulated well more recently. Even if the term itself is still being framed,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-01-12|title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=541|issue=7636|pages=133–134|doi=10.1038/541133b|pmid=28079099|bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133.|s2cid=4455842}}</ref> examples of nature-based solutions can be found all over the world, and imitated. Nature-based solutions are on their way to being mainstreamed in national and international policies and programmes (e.g. climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms).{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} For example, the theme for [[World Water Day]] 2018 was "Nature for water" and by [[UN-Water]]'s accompanying [[UN World Water Development Report]] had the title "Nature-based Solutions for Water".<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water], Geneva, Switzerland</ref> Also, in the [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]], nature based solution where one of the main topics, as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by [[China]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |website=Climate Action Summit 2019 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006112357/https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+Conservation approaches and environmental management initiatives have been carried out for decades. More recently, progress is being made in better articulating the benefits of such nature-based solutions to human well-being. Even if the term itself is still being framed,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-01-12|title='Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=541|issue=7636|pages=133–134|doi=10.1038/541133b|pmid=28079099|bibcode=2017Natur.541R.133.|s2cid=4455842}}</ref> examples of nature-based solutions can already be found all over the world.
+Recent studies have proposed ways of planning and implementing nature-based solutions in urban areas, <ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Raymond|first=Christopher M.|last2=Frantzeskaki|first2=Niki|last3=Kabisch|first3=Nadja|last4=Berry|first4=Pam|last5=Breil|first5=Margaretha|last6=Nita|first6=Mihai Razvan|last7=Geneletti|first7=Davide|last8=Calfapietra|first8=Carlo|date=2017|title=A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=77|pages=15–24|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008|issn=1462-9011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bush|first=Judy|last2=Doyon|first2=Andréanne|date=2019|title=Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute?|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483|journal=Cities|volume=95|pages=102483|doi=10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483|issn=0264-2751}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Frantzeskaki|first=Niki|date=2019|title=Seven lessons for planning nature-based solutions in cities|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2018.12.033|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=93|pages=101–111|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2018.12.033|issn=1462-9011}}</ref> while nature-based solutions are increasingly being incorporated into mainstream national and international policies and programmes (e.g. climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms), with increasing attention being given to NBS by the European Commission since 2013, as an integral part of the EU's research & innovation (R&I) policy.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Faivre|first=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=de Boissezon|first4=Birgit|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|date=2017|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|issn=0013-9351}}</ref> The UN has also tried to promote a shift in perspective towards NBS: the theme for [[World Water Day]] 2018 was "Nature for Water", while [[UN-Water]]'s accompanying [[UN World Water Development Report]] was titled "Nature-based Solutions for Water".<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water], Geneva, Switzerland</ref> The [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]], meanwhile, highlighted nature-based solutions as an effective method to combat climate change and a "Nature Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by [[China]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |website=Climate Action Summit 2019 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006112357/https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 {{TOC limit|3}}
@@ Line 20: / Line 22: @@
 [[File:Morro Strand State Beach (1).jpg|thumb|Coastal habitat protection at [[Morro Strand State Beach]] in San Luis Obispo County, California]]
 [[File:Flintenbreite constructed wetland.jpg|thumb|[[Constructed wetland]] for [[wastewater treatment]] at an [[Green building|ecological housing]] estate in Flintenbreite, Germany]]
-Societies increasingly face challenges such as [[climate change]], [[urbanization]], jeopardized [[food security]] and [[water resource]] provision, and [[disaster]] [[risk]]. One approach to answer these challenges is to singularly rely on technological strategies. An alternative approach is to manage the [[Socio-ecological system|(socio-)ecological systems]] in a comprehensive way in order to sustain and potentially increase the delivery of ecosystem services to humans. In this context, nature-based solutions (NBS) have recently been put forward by practitioners and quickly thereafter by [[policymakers]]. These solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.
+Societies increasingly face challenges such as [[climate change]], [[urbanization]], jeopardized [[food security]] and [[water resource]] provision, and [[disaster]] [[risk]]. One approach to answer these challenges is to singularly rely on technological strategies. An alternative approach is to holistically manage [[Socio-ecological system|(socio-)ecological systems]] in order to sustain and potentially increase the delivery of ecosystem services to human populations. In this context, nature-based solutions (NBS) have recently been put forward by practitioners and quickly thereafter by [[policymakers]].<ref name=":5" /> These solutions stress the sustainable use of nature in solving coupled environmental-social-economic challenges.
-While [[ecosystem services]] are often valued in terms of immediate benefits to human well-being and economy, NBS focus on the benefits to people and the environment itself, to allow for sustainable solutions that are able to respond to environmental change and [[hazard]]s in the long-term. NBS go beyond the traditional biodiversity conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and [[poverty reduction]], [[Socioeconomic development|socio-economic development]], and [[governance]] principles.
+While [[ecosystem services]] are often valued in terms of immediate benefits to human well-being and economy, NBS focus on the benefits to people and the environment itself, to allow for sustainable solutions that are able to respond to environmental change and [[hazard]]s in the long-term. NBS go beyond traditional biodiversity conservation and management principles by "re-focusing" the debate on humans and specifically integrating societal factors such as human well-being and [[poverty reduction]], [[Socioeconomic development|socio-economic development]], and [[governance]] principles.
-With respect to water issues, NBS can achieve the following, according to the [[World Water Development Report]] 2018 by [[UN-Water]]:<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018], Geneva, Switzerland</ref>
+With respect to water issues, NBS can, according to the [[World Water Development Report]] 2018 by [[UN-Water]]<ref>UN-Water (2018) [http://www.unwater.org/publications/world-water-development-report-2018/ World Water Development Report 2018], Geneva, Switzerland</ref>, achieve the following:
 * Use natural processes to enhance water availability (e.g., [[soil]] moisture retention, [[groundwater recharge]]),
-* Improve [[water quality]] (e.g., [[Wetland|natural wetlands]] and [[constructed wetlands]] to treat [[wastewater]], [[riparian buffer]] strips), and
+* Improve [[water quality]] (e.g., [[Wetland|natural wetlands]] and [[constructed wetlands]] to treat [[wastewater]]; [[riparian buffer]] strips), and
 * Reduce risks associated with water‐related disasters and climate change (e.g., [[floodplain restoration]], [[green roofs]]).
 === Related concepts ===
-In 2015, the European network [http://www.biodiversa.org BiodivERsA] highlighted how NBS relate to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|hdl=10400.3/4170|url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf}}</ref> NBS are strongly connected to ideas such as natural systems [[agriculture]],<ref name="Jackson1">Jackson, D.L. 2002. The farm as natural habitat: reconnecting food systems with ecosystems. Washington D.C.: Island.</ref> natural solutions,<ref name="Dudly2">Dudley, N. et al. 2010. Natural solutions: protected areas helping people cope with climate change. Gland: World Wide Fund for Nature.</ref> [[ecosystem-based adaptation]],<ref name="Cowan3">Cowan C., C. Epple, H. Korn, R. Schliep, J. Stadler (Eds.). 2010. Working with nature to tackle climate change. Report of the ENCA/BfN Workshop on "Developing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change – Why, what and how, https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf". Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.</ref> [[climate change adaptation|adaptation]] services,<ref name="lavorel4">[[Lavorel S.]], M.J. Colloff, S. Mcintyre, M.D. Doherty, H.T. Murphy, D.J. Metcalfe, M. Dunlop, R.J. Williams, R.M. Wise, K.J. Williams. 2015. Ecological mechanisms underpinning climate adaptation services. Global Change Biology 21:12–31</ref> natural [[infrastructure]],<ref name="Smith5">Smith, M., S. Barchiesi, S. 2009. "Environment as Infrastructure: Resilience to Climate Change Impacts of Water Through Investments in Nature" Perspectives on Water and Climate Change Adaptation. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.</ref><ref name="Ozment6">Ozment, S., K. DiFrancesco, T. Gartner. 2015. The role of natural infrastructure in the water, energy and food nexus. Nexus Dialogue Synthesis Papers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN</ref> [[green infrastructure]]<ref name="Benedict7">Benedict, M.A., E.T. McMahon. 2006. Green Infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Washington D.C.: Island.</ref> and [[ecological engineering]].<ref name="Borsje8">Borsje, B.W. et al. 2011. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecological Engineering 37/2: 113–122.</ref><ref name="Barot9">Barot, S., J.C. Lata, G. Lacroix. 2012. Meeting the relational challenge of ecological engineering within ecological sciences. Ecological Engineering 45: 13–23.</ref> For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate change adaptation and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] by organisations like [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[non-governmental organisations]] such as [[The Nature Conservancy]]. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach".<ref name="Cowan3" />
+In 2015, the European network [http://www.biodiversa.org BiodivERsA] highlighted how NBS relate to concepts like ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title=Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe|last1=Eggermont|first1=Hilde|last2=Balian|first2=Estelle|date=2015|journal=Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society|volume=24|issue=4|pages=243–248|language=en|doi=10.14512/gaia.24.4.9|last3=Azevedo|first3=José Manuel N.|last4=Beumer|first4=Victor|last5=Brodin|first5=Tomas|last6=Claudet|first6=Joachim|last7=Fady|first7=Bruno|last8=Grube|first8=Martin|last9=Keune|first9=Hans|hdl=10400.3/4170|url=https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf}}</ref> NBS are strongly connected to ideas such as natural systems [[agriculture]],<ref name="Jackson1">Jackson, D.L. 2002. The farm as natural habitat: reconnecting food systems with ecosystems. Washington D.C.: Island.</ref> natural solutions,<ref name="Dudly2">Dudley, N. et al. 2010. Natural solutions: protected areas helping people cope with climate change. Gland: World Wide Fund for Nature.</ref> [[ecosystem-based adaptation]],<ref name="Cowan3">Cowan C., C. Epple, H. Korn, R. Schliep, J. Stadler (Eds.). 2010. Working with nature to tackle climate change. Report of the ENCA/BfN Workshop on "Developing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change – Why, what and how, https://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf". Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz.</ref> [[climate change adaptation|adaptation]] services,<ref name="lavorel4">[[Lavorel S.]], M.J. Colloff, S. Mcintyre, M.D. Doherty, H.T. Murphy, D.J. Metcalfe, M. Dunlop, R.J. Williams, R.M. Wise, K.J. Williams. 2015. Ecological mechanisms underpinning climate adaptation services. Global Change Biology 21:12–31</ref> natural [[infrastructure]],<ref name="Smith5">Smith, M., S. Barchiesi, S. 2009. "Environment as Infrastructure: Resilience to Climate Change Impacts of Water Through Investments in Nature" Perspectives on Water and Climate Change Adaptation. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.</ref><ref name="Ozment6">Ozment, S., K. DiFrancesco, T. Gartner. 2015. The role of natural infrastructure in the water, energy and food nexus. Nexus Dialogue Synthesis Papers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN</ref> [[green infrastructure]]<ref name="Benedict7">Benedict, M.A., E.T. McMahon. 2006. Green Infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Washington D.C.: Island.</ref>, and [[ecological engineering]].<ref name="Borsje8">Borsje, B.W. et al. 2011. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecological Engineering 37/2: 113–122.</ref><ref name="Barot9">Barot, S., J.C. Lata, G. Lacroix. 2012. Meeting the relational challenge of ecological engineering within ecological sciences. Ecological Engineering 45: 13–23.</ref> For instance, ecosystem-based approaches are increasingly promoted for climate change adaptation and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation]] by organisations like the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] and [[non-governmental organisations]] such as [[The Nature Conservancy]]. These organisations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing the vulnerability of society to climate change, in a multi-sectoral and multi-scale approach".<ref name="Cowan3" />
 Likewise, natural infrastructure is defined as a "strategically planned and managed network of natural lands, such as forests and wetlands, working landscapes, and other open spaces that conserves or enhances ecosystem values and functions and provides associated benefits to human populations";<ref name="Smith5" /><ref name="Ozment6" /> and [[green infrastructure]] refers to an "interconnected network of green spaces that conserves natural systems and provides assorted benefits to human populations".<ref name="Benedict7" />
-Similarly, the concept of [[ecological engineering]] generally refers to "protecting, restoring (i.e. ecosystem restoration) or modifying ecological systems to increase the quantity, quality and sustainability of particular services they provide, or to build new ecological systems that provide services that would otherwise be provided through more conventional engineering, based on non-renewable resources".<ref name="Borsje8" /><ref name="Barot9" />
+Similarly, the concept of [[ecological engineering]] generally refers to "protecting, restoring (i.e. ecosystem restoration) or modifying ecological systems to increase the quantity, quality, and sustainability of particular services they provide, or to build new ecological systems that provide services that would otherwise be provided through more conventional engineering, based on non-renewable resources".<ref name="Borsje8" /><ref name="Barot9" />
 === Definitions ===
-The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) defines NBS as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits,<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191</ref> with climate change, food security, disaster risks, water security, social and economic development as well as human health being the common societal challenges.
+The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN) defines NBS as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits,<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10">Cohen-Shacham, E., G. Walters, C. Janzen, S. Maginnis (eds). 2016. Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Xiii + 97 pp. Downloadable from https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191</ref> with common societal challenges cited as being climate change, food security, disaster risks, water security, social and economic development as well as human health.
 === Categories ===
-IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an [[umbrella concept]].<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10"/> Categories and examples of NBS approaches according to IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />
+The IUCN proposes to consider NBS as an [[umbrella concept]].<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10"/> Categories and examples of NBS approaches according to the IUCN include:<ref name="Cohen-Shacham10" />
 {| class="wikitable"
 !Category of NBS approaches
@@ Line 55: / Line 57: @@
 |-
 |[[Ecosystem-based management]] approaches
-|Integrated coastal zone management; [[Integrated water resources management]]
+|[[Integrated coastal zone management]]; [[Integrated water resources management]]
 |-
 |Ecosystem protection approaches
@@ Line 65: / Line 67: @@
 [[File:Fig 2 NbS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.46|Schematic presentation of the NBS typology.<ref name=":1" />]]
-In 2014-2015, the European network BiodivERsA<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biodiversa.org/|title=BiodivERsA: home|website=www.biodiversa.org|access-date=2019-12-31}}</ref> mobilized a range of scientists, research donors and stakeholders and proposed a typology characterizing NBS along two gradients.<ref name=":1" /> 1. "how much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and 2. "how many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS". The typology highlights that NBS can involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection to management and even creation of new ecosystems) and is based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximize the delivery of each service and simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (Figure 2):
+In 2014-2015, the European network BiodivERsA<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.biodiversa.org/|title=BiodivERsA: home|website=www.biodiversa.org|access-date=2019-12-31}}</ref> mobilized a range of scientists, research donors, and stakeholders, proposing a typology characterizing NBS along two gradients:<ref name=":1" />
+# "How much engineering of biodiversity and ecosystems is involved in NBS", and
+# "How many ecosystem services and stakeholder groups are targeted by a given NBS".
+The typology highlights that NBS can involve very different actions on ecosystems (from protection, to management, or even the creation of new ecosystems) and is based on the assumption that the higher the number of services and stakeholder groups targeted, the lower the capacity to maximize the delivery of each service and simultaneously fulfil the specific needs of all stakeholder groups. As such, three types of NBS are distinguished (Figure 2):
 === Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems ===
-Type 1 NBS consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of ES both inside and outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated to extreme weather conditions and provide benefits and opportunities to local populations; and the establishment of marine protected areas to conserve biodiversity within these areas while exporting biomass into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is connected to, for example, the concept of [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|biosphere reserves]] which incorporates core protected areas for nature conservation and buffer zones and transition areas where people live and work in a sustainable way.
+Type 1 NBS consists of no or minimal intervention in ecosystems, with the objectives of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of ES both inside and outside of these conserved ecosystems. Examples include the protection of mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated to extreme weather conditions and provide benefits and opportunities to local populations; and the establishment of [[Marine protected area|marine protected areas]] to conserve biodiversity within these areas while exporting [[Biomass (ecology)|biomass]] into fishing grounds. This type of NBS is connected to, for example, the concept of [[Man and the Biosphere Programme|biosphere reserves]] which incorporate core protected areas for nature conservation and buffer zones and transition areas where people live and work in a sustainable way.
 === Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes ===
-Type 2 NBS corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types improve the delivery of selected ES compared to what would be obtained with a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality; using existing [[Agricultural biodiversity|agrobiodiversity]] to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to concepts like natural systems agriculture,<ref name="Jackson1" /> agro-ecology,<ref>Alteri, M.A. 1989. Agroecology – a new research and development paradigm for world agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 27: 37–36.</ref> and evolutionary-orientated forestry.<ref>Lefèvre F. et al. 2014. Considering evolutionary processes in adaptive forestry. Annals of Forest Science 71: 723 – 739.</ref>
+Type 2 NBS corresponds to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types improve the delivery of selected ES compared to what would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multi-functionality; using existing [[Agricultural biodiversity|agrobiodiversity]] to increase biodiversity, connectivity, and resilience in landscapes; and approaches for enhancing tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly connected to concepts like natural systems agriculture,<ref name="Jackson1" /> agro-ecology,<ref>Alteri, M.A. 1989. Agroecology – a new research and development paradigm for world agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 27: 37–36.</ref> and evolutionary-orientated forestry.<ref>Lefèvre F. et al. 2014. Considering evolutionary processes in adaptive forestry. Annals of Forest Science 71: 723 – 739.</ref>
 === Type 3 – Managing ecosystems in extensive ways ===
 Type 3 NBS consists of managing ecosystems in very extensive ways or even creating new ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new assemblages of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to concepts like green and blue infrastructures and objectives like restoration of heavily degraded or polluted areas and greening cities.
-Type 1 and 2 would typically fall within the IUCN NBS framework, whereas Type 2 and moreover Type 3 are often exemplified by EC for turning natural capital into a source for green growth and sustainable development.
+Type 1 and 2 would typically fall within the IUCN NBS framework, whereas Type 2 and moreover Type 3 are often exemplified by the EC for turning natural capital into a source for green growth and sustainable development.
 === Hybrid solutions ===
-Hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be needed to fulfil multi-functionality and sustainability goals. Similarly, a [[constructed wetland]] can be developed as a type 3 but, when well established, may subsequently be preserved and surveyed as a type 1.
+Hybrid solutions exist along this gradient both in space and time. For instance, at a landscape scale, mixing protected and managed areas could be required to fulfil multi-functionality and sustainability goals. Similarly, a [[constructed wetland]] can be developed as a Type 3 NBS but, when well-established, may subsequently be preserved and surveyed as a Type 1 solution.
 == Objectives and framing ==
-The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 |date=2019-08-08 }})
+The general objective of NBS is clear, namely the sustainable management and use of Nature for tackling societal challenges.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 |date=2019-08-08 }})
-. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf)</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from other perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, [[IUCN]]<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 |date=2019-08-08 }})</ref> defines NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits". This framing puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of "Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services".
+. European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, [[resource efficiency]] & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf)</ref> However, different stakeholders view NBS from a variety of perspectives.<ref name=":1" /> For instance, the [[IUCN]]<ref name="IUCN16">IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2016. Resolution 077 World Conservation Congress 2016, Hawai’i (https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808140530/https://portals.iucn.org/congress/motion/077 |date=2019-08-08 }})</ref> defines NBS as "actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, while simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits". This framing puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the heart of NBS, with the overarching goal of "Supporting the achievement of society's development goals and safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and enhance the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services".
+In the context of the ongoing political debate on jobs and growth (main drivers of the current EU policy agenda), the European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning [[natural capital]] into a source for green growth and sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> Within this viewpoint, nature-based solutions to societal challenges are "solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions".<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf)</ref>
+This is a somewhat broader framing of the concept, placing economy and social assets at the heart of NBS on a par with the importance of sustaining environmental conditions. It shares similarities with the definition proposed by Maes and Jacobs (2015)<ref>Maes, J., S. Jacobs. 2015. Conservation Letters {{doi|10.1111/conl.12216}}</ref>, describing NBS as "any transition to a use of ES with decreased input of non-renewable natural capital and increased investment in renewable natural processes". Under this definition, the development and evaluation of NBS spans three basic requirements:
+# Decreasing fossil fuel input per produced unit;
-In the context of the ongoing political debate on jobs and growth (main drivers of the current EU policy agenda), the European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and societal challenges into innovation opportunities, by turning [[natural capital]] into a source for green growth and sustainable development.<ref name="European Commission 2015" /> In their view, NBS to societal challenges are "solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions.<ref name="ec.europa.eu">European Commission. 2016. Horizon2020 Work Programme 2016–2017 – 12. Climate action, environment, resource efficiency & raw materials, 99 pp. (http://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-climate_en.pdf)</ref>"
+# Lowering systemic trade-offs and increasing synergies between ES; and
+# Increasing labour input and jobs.
+Within this definition, therefore, Nature is seen as a tool to inspire more systemic solutions to societal problems.
-This framing is somewhat broader, and puts economy and social assets at the heart of NBS as importantly as sustaining environmental conditions. It shares similarities with the definition proposed by Maes and Jacobs (2015)<ref>Maes, J., S. Jacobs. 2015. Conservation Letters {{doi|10.1111/conl.12216}}</ref> defining NBS as "any transition to a use of ES with decreased input of non-renewable natural capital and increased investment in renewable natural processes". In their view, development and evaluation of NBS spans three basic requirements: (1) decrease of fossil fuel input per produced unit; (2) lowering of systemic trade-offs and increasing synergies between ES; and (3) increasing labor input and jobs. Here, nature is seen as a tool to inspire more systemic solutions to societal problems.
-Whatever definition used, promoting sustainability and the increased role of natural, self-sustained processes relying on [[biodiversity]], are inherent to NBS. They constitute actions easily seen as positive for a wide range of stakeholders, as they bring about benefits at environmental, economic and social levels. As a consequence, the concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms).{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}
+Whatever the definition used, the promotion of sustainability and the increased role of natural, self-sustained processes relying on [[biodiversity]] are inherent characteristics of NBS. They constitute actions easily demonstrable as positive for a wide range of stakeholders, as they bring about benefits at environmental, economic, and societal levels. As a consequence, the concept of NBS is gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and is now on its way to be mainstreamed into policies and programmes (climate change policy, law, infrastructure investment, and financing mechanisms),<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Citation|last=Dhyani|first=Shalini|title=Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy|date=2020|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_1|work=Nature-based Solutions for Resilient Ecosystems and Societies|pages=1–26|place=Singapore|publisher=Springer Singapore|access-date=2021-09-05|last2=Karki|first2=Madhav|last3=Gupta|first3=Anil Kumar}}</ref>, although NBS still face many implementation barriers and challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wamsler|first=C.|last2=Wickenberg|first2=B.|last3=Hanson|first3=H.|last4=Alkan Olsson|first4=J.|last5=Stålhammar|first5=S.|last6=Björn|first6=H.|last7=Falck|first7=H.|last8=Gerell|first8=D.|last9=Oskarsson|first9=T.|last10=Simonsson|first10=E.|last11=Torffvit|first11=F.|date=2020|title=Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154|journal=Journal of Cleaner Production|volume=247|pages=119154|doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154|issn=0959-6526}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chausson|first=Alexandre|last2=Turner|first2=Beth|last3=Seddon|first3=Dan|last4=Chabaneix|first4=Nicole|last5=Girardin|first5=Cécile A. J.|last6=Kapos|first6=Valerie|last7=Key|first7=Isabel|last8=Roe|first8=Dilys|last9=Smith|first9=Alison|last10=Woroniecki|first10=Stephen|last11=Seddon|first11=Nathalie|date=2020-09-09|title=Mapping the effectiveness of nature‐based solutions for climate change adaptation|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.15310|journal=Global Change Biology|volume=26|issue=11|pages=6134–6155|doi=10.1111/gcb.15310|issn=1354-1013}}</ref>
-The potential of NBS for transformative change towards sustainability has been explored recently.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Welden|first1=E. A.|last2=Chausson|first2=Alexandre|last3=Melanidis|first3=Marina S.|title=Leveraging Nature-based Solutions for transformation: Reconnecting people and nature|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pan3.10212|journal=People and Nature|year=2021|language=en|volume=n/a|issue=n/a|doi=10.1002/pan3.10212|issn=2575-8314}}</ref> One study found that NBS can drive profound and substantial changes towards sustainability in local social-ecological systems through a combination of nature´s values, knowledge, community engagement and nature protection and sustainable management.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-05-14|title=Assessing nature-based solutions for transformative change|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221002323|journal=One Earth|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.013|issn=2590-3322|last1=Palomo|first1=Ignacio|last2=Locatelli|first2=Bruno|last3=Otero|first3=Iago|last4=Colloff|first4=Matthew|last5=Crouzat|first5=Emilie|last6=Cuni-Sanchez|first6=Aida|last7=Gómez-Baggethun|first7=Erik|last8=González-García|first8=Alberto|last9=Grêt-Regamey|first9=Adrienne|last10=Jiménez-Aceituno|first10=Amanda|last11=Martín-López|first11=Berta|last12=Pascual|first12=Unai|last13=Zafra-Calvo|first13=Noelia|last14=Bruley|first14=Enora|last15=Fischborn|first15=Marie|last16=Metz|first16=Rosmarie|last17=Lavorel|first17=Sandra|volume=4|issue=5|pages=730–741|hdl=20.500.11850/484330|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Further studies that assess the contributions of NBS towards transformative change at broader scales, for example in relation to [[planetary boundaries]], are needed.
+The potential of NBS for transformative change towards sustainability has recently been explored.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Welden|first1=E. A.|last2=Chausson|first2=Alexandre|last3=Melanidis|first3=Marina S.|title=Leveraging Nature-based Solutions for transformation: Reconnecting people and nature|url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pan3.10212|journal=People and Nature|year=2021|language=en|volume=n/a|issue=n/a|doi=10.1002/pan3.10212|issn=2575-8314}}</ref> One study found that NBS can drive profound and substantial changes towards sustainability in local social-ecological systems through a combination of nature's values, knowledge, community engagement, and nature protection and sustainable management.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-05-14|title=Assessing nature-based solutions for transformative change|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221002323|journal=One Earth|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.013|issn=2590-3322|last1=Palomo|first1=Ignacio|last2=Locatelli|first2=Bruno|last3=Otero|first3=Iago|last4=Colloff|first4=Matthew|last5=Crouzat|first5=Emilie|last6=Cuni-Sanchez|first6=Aida|last7=Gómez-Baggethun|first7=Erik|last8=González-García|first8=Alberto|last9=Grêt-Regamey|first9=Adrienne|last10=Jiménez-Aceituno|first10=Amanda|last11=Martín-López|first11=Berta|last12=Pascual|first12=Unai|last13=Zafra-Calvo|first13=Noelia|last14=Bruley|first14=Enora|last15=Fischborn|first15=Marie|last16=Metz|first16=Rosmarie|last17=Lavorel|first17=Sandra|volume=4|issue=5|pages=730–741|hdl=20.500.11850/484330|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Further studies that assess the contributions of NBS towards transformative change at broader scales, for example in relation to [[planetary boundaries]], are needed.
 == Examples ==
-Demonstrating the benefits of nature and healthy ecosystems and showcasing the return on investment they can offer is necessary in order to increase awareness, but also to provide support and guidance on how to implement NBS. A large number of initiatives around the world already highlight the effectiveness of NBS approaches to address a wide range of societal challenges.
+Demonstrating the benefits of nature and healthy ecosystems, as well as showcasing the return on investment they can offer, is necessary in order not only to increase awareness, but also to provide support and guidance on how to implement NBS. A large number of initiatives around the world already highlight the effectiveness of NBS approaches to address a wide range of societal challenges.
 === Worldwide ===
@@ Line 193: / Line 206: @@
 ==== East Kolkata wetlands ====
-In 2018, [[The Hindu]] reported that the [[East Kolkata wetlands]], the world's largest organic sewage treatment facility had been used to clean the sewage of Kolkata in an organic manner by using algae for several decades. In use since the 1930s, the natural system was discovered by Dhrubajyoti Ghosh, an ecologist and a municipal engineer in the 1970s while working in the region.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/wetlands-will-weep-today-1502586927.html|title=The wetlands will weep today|last1=Ghatak|first1=Aditi Roy|date=17 February 2018|accessdate=8 March 2018|publisher=The Statesman}}</ref> Ghosh worked for decades to protect the wetlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dhrubajyoti.net/publ/Dr.%20Ghosh_changemaker.pdf|title=The Calcutta Wetlands: turning bad water into good|last1=Ghosh|first1=Dhrubajyoti|website=www.dhrubajyoti.net|publisher=Changemakers (issue October 2008)|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref> It had been a practice in [[Kolkata]], one of the five largest cities in [[India]], for the municipal authorities to pump sewage into shallow ponds (''bheris'').<ref name="book">{{cite book|url=http://dhrubajyoti.net/Final%20Ecosystem%20Book.pdf|title=Ecosystem management – towards merging theory and practice|last1=Ghosh|first1=Dhrubajyoti|date=2 October 2014|publisher=Nimby books|isbn=9788190657044|location=New delhi|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref> Under the heat of the tropical sun, algae proliferated in them, converting the sewage into clean water, which in turn was used by villagers to grow paddy and vegetables. This system has been in use in the region since the 1930s and treats 750 million litres of [[wastewater]] per day, giving livelihood to 100,000 people in the vicinity.<ref name="kol">{{cite news|last1=Aseem|first1=Shrivastava|title=The ecologically subsidised city: on Kolkata's wetland communities|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-ecologically-subsidised-city/article22970933.ece|accessdate=8 March 2018|newspaper=The Hindu|date=8 March 2018}}</ref>  For his work, Ghosh was included in the UN Global 500 Roll of Honour in 1990 and received the [[Luc Hoffmann]] award in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.global500.org/index.php/year/1990?start=100|title=Global 500 environmental forum|website=www.global500.org|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref>
+In 2018, [[The Hindu]] reported that the [[East Kolkata wetlands]], the world's largest organic sewage treatment facility, had been used to organically clean the sewage of Kolkata for several decades through the use of algae. This natural system, in use since the 1930s, was discovered by Dhrubajyoti Ghosh, an ecologist and municipal engineer in the 1970s, while he was working in the region.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/wetlands-will-weep-today-1502586927.html|title=The wetlands will weep today|last1=Ghatak|first1=Aditi Roy|date=17 February 2018|accessdate=8 March 2018|publisher=The Statesman}}</ref> Ghosh worked for decades to protect the wetlands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dhrubajyoti.net/publ/Dr.%20Ghosh_changemaker.pdf|title=The Calcutta Wetlands: turning bad water into good|last1=Ghosh|first1=Dhrubajyoti|website=www.dhrubajyoti.net|publisher=Changemakers (issue October 2008)|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref> It had been a practice in [[Kolkata]], one of the five largest cities in [[India]], for the municipal authorities to pump sewage into shallow ponds (''bheris'').<ref name="book">{{cite book|url=http://dhrubajyoti.net/Final%20Ecosystem%20Book.pdf|title=Ecosystem management – towards merging theory and practice|last1=Ghosh|first1=Dhrubajyoti|date=2 October 2014|publisher=Nimby books|isbn=9788190657044|location=New delhi|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref> Under the heat of the tropical sun, algae proliferated in these ''bheris'', converting the sewage into clean water, which in turn was used by villagers to grow [[Rice#Harvesting, drying and milling|paddy]] and vegetables. This almost 100-year-old system treats 750 million litres of [[wastewater]] per day, providing livelihoods for 100,000 people in the vicinity.<ref name="kol">{{cite news|last1=Aseem|first1=Shrivastava|title=The ecologically subsidised city: on Kolkata's wetland communities|url=http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-ecologically-subsidised-city/article22970933.ece|accessdate=8 March 2018|newspaper=The Hindu|date=8 March 2018}}</ref>  For his work, Ghosh was included in the UN Global 500 Roll of Honour in 1990 and received the [[Luc Hoffmann]] award in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.global500.org/index.php/year/1990?start=100|title=Global 500 environmental forum|website=www.global500.org|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=8 March 2018}}</ref>
 == Practical implementation ==
 {{more citations needed|section|date=March 2018}}
+There is currently no accepted basis by which a government agency, municipality, or private company can systematically assess the efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability of a particular nature-based solution. However, a number of studies and reports have proposed principles and frameworks to guide effective and appropriate implementation,<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2016-08-04|editor-last=Cohen-Shacham|editor-first=E.|editor2-last=Walters|editor2-first=G.|editor3-last=Janzen|editor3-first=C.|editor4-last=Maginnis|editor4-first=S.|title=Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2016.13.en|doi=10.2305/iucn.ch.2016.13.en}}</ref> in order to upscale NBS in practice in a variety of situations. One primary principle, for example, is that NBS seek to embrace, rather than replace, nature conservation norms<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=Carl C.|last2=Renaud|first2=Fabrice G.|date=2021-02-19|title=A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The ‘why’, ‘when’, and ‘how’ of success for disaster risk reduction measures|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4|journal=Ambio|doi=10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4|issn=0044-7447}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Cohen-Shacham|first=Emmanuelle|last2=Andrade|first2=Angela|last3=Dalton|first3=James|last4=Dudley|first4=Nigel|last5=Jones|first5=Mike|last6=Kumar|first6=Chetan|last7=Maginnis|first7=Stewart|last8=Maynard|first8=Simone|last9=Nelson|first9=Cara R.|last10=Renaud|first10=Fabrice G.|last11=Welling|first11=Rebecca|date=2019|title=Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014|journal=Environmental Science & Policy|volume=98|pages=20–29|doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014|issn=1462-9011}}</ref>.
-There is currently no accepted basis on which a government agency, municipality or private company can systematically assess the efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of a particular nature-based solution. However, a series of principles are proposed to guide effective and appropriate implementation, and thus to upscale NBS in practice. For example, NBS embrace and are not meant to replace nature conservation norms. Also, NBS are determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge. NBS are an integral part of the overall design of policies, and measure or actions, to address a specific challenges. Finally, NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions) and they are applied at the landscape scale.
+NBS are also determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts that include traditional, local and scientific knowledge. NBS are an integral part of the overall design of policies, and measures or actions, to address specific challenges. Finally, NBS can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner along with other solutions to societal challenges (e.g. technological and engineering solutions) and are applied at the landscape scale.
-Implementing NBS requires political, economic, and scientific challenges to be tackled. First and foremost, private sector investment is needed, not to replace but to supplement traditional sources of capital such as public funding or [[philanthropy]]. The challenge is therefore to provide a robust evidence base for the contribution of nature to economic growth and jobs, and to demonstrate the economic viability of these solutions – compared to technological ones – on a timescale compatible with that of global change. Furthermore, it requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy schemes, and the creation of opportunities for [[conservation finance]], to name a few. Indeed, such measures will be needed to scale up NBS interventions, and strengthen their impact in mitigating the world's most pressing challenges.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}}
+Implementing NBS requires political, economic, and scientific challenges to be tackled. First and foremost, private sector investment is needed to supplement traditional sources of capital such as public funding or [[philanthropy]]. The challenge is therefore to provide a robust evidence base for the contribution of nature to economic growth and jobs, and to demonstrate the economic viability of these solutions – compared to technological ones – on a timescale compatible with that of global change. Furthermore, it requires measures like adaptation of economic subsidy schemes, and the creation of opportunities for [[conservation finance]], to name a few. Indeed, such measures will be needed to scale up NBS interventions and strengthen their impact in mitigating the world's most pressing challenges.<ref name=":6" />
 === Projects supported by the European Union ===
-Since 2016, the EU is supporting a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (called ThinkNature) to promote the co-design, testing and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated way.<ref name=":0" /> Creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote the market uptake of NBS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nikolaidis|first1=Nikolaos P.|last2=Kolokotsa|first2=Dionyssia|last3=Banwart|first3=Steven A.|date=2017-03-16|title=Nature-based solutions: business|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7645|pages=315|doi=10.1038/543315d|pmid=28300105|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.543..315N|doi-access=free}}</ref> The project is part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 – Research and Innovation programme, and will last for 3 years. There are a total of 17 international partners involved, including the Technical University of Crete (Project Leader), the University of Helsinki and BiodivERsA.
+Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (ThinkNature<ref>{{Cite web|title=ThinkNature {{!}} Platform for Nature-Based Solutions|url=https://www.think-nature.eu/|access-date=2021-09-05|website=ThinkNature|language=en}}</ref>) to promote the co-design, testing, and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated way.<ref name=":0" /> The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote market uptake of NBS.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nikolaidis|first1=Nikolaos P.|last2=Kolokotsa|first2=Dionyssia|last3=Banwart|first3=Steven A.|date=2017-03-16|title=Nature-based solutions: business|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=543|issue=7645|pages=315|doi=10.1038/543315d|pmid=28300105|issn=0028-0836|bibcode=2017Natur.543..315N|doi-access=free}}</ref> The project is part of the EU’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation programme, and will run for 3 years. There are a total of 17 international partners involved, including the [[Technical University of Crete]] (Project Leader), the [[University of Helsinki]] and BiodivERsA.
-In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the [[Estonia|Estonian Republic]] of the [[Council of the European Union]], a conference called “Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to Common-use” was organized by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and the University of Tallinn.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nbs2017.eu/|title=Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=21 March 2018}}</ref> This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS launched by the European Commission and by the EU Member States, focusing on policy and governance of NBS, and on research and innovation.
+In 2017, as part of the Presidency of the [[Estonia|Estonian Republic]] of the [[Council of the European Union]], a conference called “Nature-based Solutions: From Innovation to Common-use” was organized by the Ministry of the Environment of Estonia and the [[Tallinn University|University of Tallinn]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nbs2017.eu/|title=Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=21 March 2018}}</ref> This conference aimed to strengthen synergies among various recent initiatives and programs related to NBS launched by the European Commission and by the EU Member States, focusing on policy and governance of NBS, research, and innovation.
 === Nature-based Solutions in the Paris Agreement ===
-In recognition of the importance of natural ecosystems for mitigation and adaptation, the [http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf Paris Agreement] calls on all Parties to acknowledge “the importance of the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of the greenhouse gases” and to “note the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognized by some cultures as Mother Earth”. It then includes in its Articles several references to nature-based solutions. For example, Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt “…policy approaches and positive incentives for activities relating to [[reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation]], and the role of conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries; and alternative policy approaches, such as joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and sustainable management of forests, while reaffirming the importance of incentivizing, as appropriate, non-carbon benefits associated with such approaches”. Article 7.1 further encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. In total, the Agreement refers to nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbspolicyplatform.org/|title=Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform|website=www.nbspolicyplatform.org|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> of all [[Intended nationally determined contributions|Nationally Determined Contributions]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-registry|title=Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) {{!}} UNFCCC|website=unfccc.int|language=en|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges, suggesting broad consensus for the role of nature in helping meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-the-ground.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 2016|title=Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?|url=http://pubs.iied.org/17364IIED/?k=Ecosystem-based+Adaptation+EbA&p=3}}</ref>
+In recognition of the importance of natural ecosystems for mitigation and adaptation, the [http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf Paris Agreement] calls on all Parties to acknowledge “the importance of the conservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of the greenhouse gases” and to “note the importance of ensuring the integrity of all ecosystems, including oceans, and the protection of biodiversity, recognized by some cultures as Mother Earth”. It then includes in its Articles several references to nature-based solutions. For example, Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt “…policy approaches and positive incentives for activities relating to [[reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation]], and the role of conservation and sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries; and alternative policy approaches, such as joint mitigation and adaptation approaches for the integral and sustainable management of forests, while reaffirming the importance of incentivizing, as appropriate, non-carbon benefits associated with such approaches”. Article 7.1 further encourages Parties to build the resilience of socioeconomic and ecological systems, including through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. In total, the Agreement refers to Nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 distinct places. An in-depth analysis <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nbspolicyplatform.org/|title=Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform|website=www.nbspolicyplatform.org|language=en-GB|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> of all [[Intended nationally determined contributions|Nationally Determined Contributions]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-registry|title=Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) {{!}} UNFCCC|website=unfccc.int|language=en|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref> submitted to UNFCCC, revealed that around 130 NDCs or 65% of signatories commit to nature-based solutions in their climate pledges, suggesting broad consensus for the role of Nature in helping to meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on-the-ground.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=July 2016|title=Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?|url=http://pubs.iied.org/17364IIED/?k=Ecosystem-based+Adaptation+EbA&p=3}}</ref>
 === Nature-based solutions at the UN climate action summit in September 2019 ===
-In the [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]], nature-based solutions were one of the main topics covered, when they were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by [[China]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |website=Climate Action Summit 2019 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006112357/https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
+In the [[2019 UN Climate Action Summit]], nature-based solutions were one of the main topics covered, and were discussed as an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-Based Solution Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by [[China]] and [[New Zealand]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit |url=https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |website=Climate Action Summit 2019 |access-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006112357/https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
 ==History==
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 The term NBS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s (in particular the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|International Union for Conservation of Nature]] and the [[World Bank]]) and thereafter by policymakers in Europe (most notably the [[European Commission]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Faivre|first1=Nicolas|last2=Fritz|first2=Marco|last3=Freitas|first3=Tiago|last4=Boissezon|first4=Birgit de|last5=Vandewoestijne|first5=Sofie|title=Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges|journal=Environmental Research|volume=159|pages=509–518|doi=10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032|pmid=28886502|bibcode=2017ER....159..509F|year=2017|s2cid=42573101}}</ref><ref name="MacKinnon11">MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio. Washington D.C.: World Bank.</ref><ref name="Mittermeier12">Mittermeier, R. et al. 2008. A Climate For Life: Meeting the Global Challenge. Arlington, VA: International League of Conservation Photographers.</ref> It was used in the context of finding new solutions to mitigate and adapt to climate change effects, whilst simultaneously protecting biodiversity and improving sustainable livelihoods.
-The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> The term was also adopted by European policymakers, in particular by the European Commission in a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing that NBS can offer innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a green economy. The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of the Global Climate Action Summit in California in September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html|title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda|website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref>
+The IUCN referred to NBS in a position paper for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.<ref>IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.</ref> The term was also adopted by European policymakers, in particular by the EC, in a report<ref name="European Commission 2015">European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.</ref> stressing that NBS can offer innovative means to create jobs and growth as part of a green economy. The term started to make appearances in the mainstream media around the time of the Global Climate Action Summit in California in September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html|title=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda|website=Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda|access-date=2018-09-13}}</ref>
 == See also ==

Category of NBS approaches	Examples
Ecosystem restoration approaches	Ecological restoration; Ecological engineering; Forest landscape restoration
Issue-specific ecosystem-related approaches	Ecosystem-based adaptation; Ecosystem-based mitigation; Climate adaptation services; Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction
Infrastructure-related approaches	Natural infrastructure; Green infrastructure
Ecosystem-based management approaches	Integrated coastal zone management; Integrated water resources management
Ecosystem protection approaches	Area-based conservation approaches including protected area management