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==Interactions with humans==
==Interactions with humans==
The white-footed mouse is one of the most common mouse species used as [[Laboratory mouse|laboratory mice]] after the [[house mouse]], and their [[domesticated]] version is called ''[[Laboratory mouse|Peromyscus leucopus linville]]''.<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=4209926 | pmid=25116892 | doi=10.1111/iep.12091 | volume=95 | issue=5 | title=Peromyscus leucopus mice: a potential animal model for haematological studies | year=2014 | journal=International Journal of Experimental Pathology| pages=342–50 | vauthors=Sun Y, Desierto MJ, Ueda Y, Kajigaya S, Chen J, Young NS}}</ref> Such domesticated mice are also kept as [[Pocket pet|pet]]s<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://mouseranch.com/careSheets/whiteFooted&DeerMice.shtml |title = White-Footed & Deer Mice Care Sheet by Ann Vole}}</ref><ref>Clive Roots; ''Domestication'' - page: 105</ref> and have been bred to have many different colors.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://retrieverman.net/2010/06/03/deer-mice-and-white-footed-mice/ |title = Deer Mice and White-footed Mice|date = 2010-06-03}}</ref>
The white-footed mouse is one of the most common mouse species used as [[Laboratory mouse|laboratory mice]] after the [[house mouse]], and their [[domesticated]] version is called ''[[Laboratory mouse|Peromyscus leucopus linville]]''.<ref>{{cite journal| pmc=4209926 | pmid=25116892 | doi=10.1111/iep.12091 | volume=95 | issue=5 | title=Peromyscus leucopus mice: a potential animal model for haematological studies | year=2014 | journal=International Journal of Experimental Pathology| pages=342–50 | vauthors=Sun Y, Desierto MJ, Ueda Y, Kajigaya S, Chen J, Young NS}}</ref> Such domesticated mice are also kept as [[Pocket pet|pet]]s<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://mouseranch.com/careSheets/whiteFooted&DeerMice.shtml |title = White-Footed & Deer Mice Care Sheet by Ann Vole}}</ref><ref>Clive Roots; ''Domestication'' - page: 105</ref> and have been bred to have many different colors.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://retrieverman.net/2010/06/03/deer-mice-and-white-footed-mice/ |title = Deer Mice and White-footed Mice|date = 2010-06-03}}</ref>

== Adaptations to urbanization in New York City ==
Native populations of ''P. leucopus'' in [[New York City|New York city]] are isolated by dense human infrastructure and are largely confined to small urban forest islands such as [[Prospect Park (Brooklyn)|Prospect Park]] and [[Central Park]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Xue |first2=Alexander T. |last3=Alvarado-Serrano |first3=Diego |last4=Boehm |first4=Joel T. |last5=Joseph |first5=Tyler |last6=Hickerson |first6=Michael J. |last7=Munshi-South |first7=Jason |date=2016-04-01 |title=Urbanization shapes the demographic history of a native rodent (the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus ) in New York City |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0983 |journal=Biology Letters |language=en |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=20150983 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2015.0983 |issn=1744-9561 |pmc=PMC4881337 |pmid=27072402}}</ref> The limited gene flow caused by human activities and coupled with a bottleneck event in urban populations has been powerful enough to lead to [[Divergent evolution|evolutionary divergence]] of urban white-footed mice.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Munshi‐South |first2=Jason |date=2017-10-05 |title=Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.14369 |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=22 |pages=6336–6350 |doi=10.1111/mec.14369 |issn=0962-1083 |pmc=PMC5716853 |pmid=28980357}}</ref>

=== Metabolism ===
New York City mice exhibit local adaptations to diet-mediated selective pressures of urban habitats. Being opportunistic feeders, urban ''P. leucopus'' populations subside on food discarded by humans as a readily available source of nutriment, thereby consuming a lot more fat and carbohydrates than rural populations.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Munshi‐South |first2=Jason |date=2017-10-05 |title=Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.14369 |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=22 |pages=6336–6350 |doi=10.1111/mec.14369 |issn=0962-1083 |pmc=PMC5716853 |pmid=28980357}}</ref> Results of a landscape genomics study showed evidence of positive selection in mitochondrial genes of urban mice that are responsible for lipid and carbohydrate breakdown and digestion.<ref name=":12" /> Isolated ''P. leucopus'' populations inhabiting NYC parks show signs of molecular-level adaptation to urban food resources.<ref name=":12" /> The differential evolution of metabolic processes in urban ''P. leucopus'' populations is thought to contribute to their success and survival in NYC urban forests.<ref name=":12" /> Furthermore, the morphology of urban white-footed mice may be changing to adapt to to alternative food sources. For instance, the teeth of white-footed mice in New York City are shorter than the teeth of rural mice.<ref name=":12" /> This change in physical traits could be explained by the availability of higher-quality food sources in urban forests, which negates the need for long, powerful teeth.<ref name=":12" />

=== Detoxification ===
Urban populations of ''P. leucopus'' may be under unique selective pressures due to increased routine exposure to pollutants and toxins. A comparative [[transcriptome]] study found evidence of [[Evolutionary pressure|positive selection]] acting on the genes of urban mice that play major roles in detoxification and [[xenobiotic]] metabolism.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Munshi-South |first2=Jason |last3=Obergfell |first3=Craig |last4=O’Neill |first4=Rachel |date=2013-08-28 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Norman |title=Signatures of Rapid Evolution in Urban and Rural Transcriptomes of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in the New York Metropolitan Area |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074938 |journal=PLoS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=e74938 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074938 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC3756007 |pmid=24015321}}</ref> The genes under positive selection pressure include CYPA1A and Hsp90, which are known to be involved in the metabolism of foreign substances and drugs.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Munshi‐South |first2=Jason |date=2017-10-05 |title=Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus ) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.14369 |journal=Molecular Ecology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=22 |pages=6336–6350 |doi=10.1111/mec.14369 |issn=0962-1083 |pmc=PMC5716853 |pmid=28980357}}</ref> High concentrations of heavy metals such as lead and mercury in NYC park soils pose a unique selective pressure that likely led urban populations of ''P. leucopus'' to develop metabolic adaptations to the toxicity of urban forest environments.<ref name=":2" /> Furthermore, exposure of pollutants is known to induce [[Methylation|hypermethylation]] of DNA''.''<ref name=":13" /> A study showed that in urban white-footed mice, a gene coding for a [[demethylase]] enzyme is under positive selection.<ref name=":13" /> This means that urban populations of white-food mice that live in highly polluted environments uniquely benefit from an active demethylase enzyme that removes methyl groups from DNA.<ref name=":13" />

=== Reproduction ===
City-dwelling white-footed mouse populations are densely concentrated in isolated urban parks, which makes sperm competition a particularly powerful source of selection in urban environments.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen E. |last2=Munshi-South |first2=Jason |last3=Obergfell |first3=Craig |last4=O’Neill |first4=Rachel |date=2013-08-28 |editor-last=Johnson |editor-first=Norman |title=Signatures of Rapid Evolution in Urban and Rural Transcriptomes of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in the New York Metropolitan Area |url=https://dx.plos.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074938 |journal=PLoS ONE |language=en |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=e74938 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074938 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC3756007 |pmid=24015321}}</ref> Genetic studies have identified signs of molecular-level evolution of reproductive processes in urban white-footed mouse populations. Genes associated with [[spermatogenesis]], sperm locomotion, and sperm-egg interactions in urban mice show a divergent pattern of regulation compared to their rural counterparts.<ref name=":22" /> Therefore, the intensified sperm competition of dense mouse populations in urban forests has driven them to develop faster, more efficient sperm than that of rural mice.

=== Immunity ===
Urban environments are saturated with large numbers of novel and familiar pathogens that are introduced by transportation, traffic, and trade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Catherine A. |last2=Altizer |first2=Sonia |date=2007-02-01 |title=Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17113678/ |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=95–102 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2006.11.001 |issn=0169-5347 |pmc=7114918 |pmid=17113678}}</ref> The elevated occurrence of pathogens is a driver of directional selection in which genetic variants that more efficiently resist infection are favored. The outcome of this selection can be seen in genetic divergence between urban and rural ''P. leucopus'' populations at loci that regulate the innate immune response and inflammation.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Harris |first=Stephen |date=2015-09-30 |title=Population Genomics of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in New York City |url=https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/965 |journal=Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects}}</ref> Furthermore, a study has found evidence of positive selection acting on genes that modulate pathogen recognition in urban mice.<ref name=":3" /> Immunoregulatory proteins that are found on [[T cell|T lymphocytes]] are overexpressed in urban mice when compared to rural populations.<ref name=":3" /> These findings suggest that the immune systems of NYC white-footed mice may be evolving to recognize and respond to pathogens more efficiently. The divergence between rural and urban white-footed mice is especially prominent due to impeded gene flow between these populations, which is caused by landscape barriers including roads, highways, and pedestrian sidewalks.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=André |first=A. |last2=Millien |first2=V. |last3=Galan |first3=M. |last4=Ribas |first4=A. |last5=Michaux |first5=J. R. |date=2017-10-01 |title=Effects of parasite and historic driven selection on the diversity and structure of a MHC-II gene in a small mammal species (Peromyscus leucopus) undergoing range expansion |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-017-9898-z |journal=Evolutionary Ecology |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=785–801 |doi=10.1007/s10682-017-9898-z |issn=1573-8477}}</ref> Monitoring the strength of immune defenses in ''P. leucopus'' is of special importance because they are commonly infected with dangerous pathogens such as [[hantaviruses]] and ''[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]''.<ref name=":4" />


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 14:40, 22 November 2022

White-footed mouse
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Subfamily: Neotominae
Genus: Peromyscus
Species:
P. leucopus
Binomial name
Peromyscus leucopus
(Rafinesque, 1818)

The white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) is a rodent native to North America from Ontario, Quebec, Labrador, and the Maritime Provinces (excluding the island of Newfoundland) to the southwestern United States and Mexico.[1] In the Maritimes, its only location is a disjunct population in southern Nova Scotia.[2] It is also known as the woodmouse, particularly in Texas.

Description

Adults are 90–100 mm (3.5–3.9 in) in length, not counting the tail, which can add another 63–97 mm (2.5–3.8 in). A young adult weighs 20–30 g (0.7–1.1 oz). While their maximum lifespan is 96 months, the mean life expectancy for the species is 45.5 months for females and 47.5 for males. In northern climates, the average life expectancy is 12–24 months.[3] The species is similar to Peromyscus maniculatus. [4]

Behavior and diet

White-footed mice are omnivorous, and eat seeds and insects. They are timid and generally avoid humans, but they occasionally take up residence in ground-floor walls of homes and apartments, where they build nests and store food.[5] White-footed mice also takes unoccupied old bird nests to build roofs to live their rest of their lives up in the trees. [6]

Female with sucklings

Diseases

Like the North American deer mouse, this species may carry hantaviruses, which cause severe illness in humans. It has also been found to be a competent reservoir for the Lyme disease–causing spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi.[7] The white-footed mouse is the favored host for the parasitic botfly Cuterebra fontinella.[8] Additionally, this species harbors strains of bacteria such as Clostridium Difficile, which are associated with human gastrointestinal disease.[9]

Interactions with humans

The white-footed mouse is one of the most common mouse species used as laboratory mice after the house mouse, and their domesticated version is called Peromyscus leucopus linville.[10] Such domesticated mice are also kept as pets[11][12] and have been bred to have many different colors.[13]

Adaptations to urbanization in New York City

Native populations of P. leucopus in New York city are isolated by dense human infrastructure and are largely confined to small urban forest islands such as Prospect Park and Central Park.[14] The limited gene flow caused by human activities and coupled with a bottleneck event in urban populations has been powerful enough to lead to evolutionary divergence of urban white-footed mice.[14][15]

Metabolism

New York City mice exhibit local adaptations to diet-mediated selective pressures of urban habitats. Being opportunistic feeders, urban P. leucopus populations subside on food discarded by humans as a readily available source of nutriment, thereby consuming a lot more fat and carbohydrates than rural populations.[16] Results of a landscape genomics study showed evidence of positive selection in mitochondrial genes of urban mice that are responsible for lipid and carbohydrate breakdown and digestion.[16] Isolated P. leucopus populations inhabiting NYC parks show signs of molecular-level adaptation to urban food resources.[16] The differential evolution of metabolic processes in urban P. leucopus populations is thought to contribute to their success and survival in NYC urban forests.[16] Furthermore, the morphology of urban white-footed mice may be changing to adapt to to alternative food sources. For instance, the teeth of white-footed mice in New York City are shorter than the teeth of rural mice.[16] This change in physical traits could be explained by the availability of higher-quality food sources in urban forests, which negates the need for long, powerful teeth.[16]

Detoxification

Urban populations of P. leucopus may be under unique selective pressures due to increased routine exposure to pollutants and toxins. A comparative transcriptome study found evidence of positive selection acting on the genes of urban mice that play major roles in detoxification and xenobiotic metabolism.[17] The genes under positive selection pressure include CYPA1A and Hsp90, which are known to be involved in the metabolism of foreign substances and drugs.[18] High concentrations of heavy metals such as lead and mercury in NYC park soils pose a unique selective pressure that likely led urban populations of P. leucopus to develop metabolic adaptations to the toxicity of urban forest environments.[17] Furthermore, exposure of pollutants is known to induce hypermethylation of DNA.[18] A study showed that in urban white-footed mice, a gene coding for a demethylase enzyme is under positive selection.[18] This means that urban populations of white-food mice that live in highly polluted environments uniquely benefit from an active demethylase enzyme that removes methyl groups from DNA.[18]

Reproduction

City-dwelling white-footed mouse populations are densely concentrated in isolated urban parks, which makes sperm competition a particularly powerful source of selection in urban environments.[19] Genetic studies have identified signs of molecular-level evolution of reproductive processes in urban white-footed mouse populations. Genes associated with spermatogenesis, sperm locomotion, and sperm-egg interactions in urban mice show a divergent pattern of regulation compared to their rural counterparts.[19] Therefore, the intensified sperm competition of dense mouse populations in urban forests has driven them to develop faster, more efficient sperm than that of rural mice.

Immunity

Urban environments are saturated with large numbers of novel and familiar pathogens that are introduced by transportation, traffic, and trade.[20] The elevated occurrence of pathogens is a driver of directional selection in which genetic variants that more efficiently resist infection are favored. The outcome of this selection can be seen in genetic divergence between urban and rural P. leucopus populations at loci that regulate the innate immune response and inflammation.[21] Furthermore, a study has found evidence of positive selection acting on genes that modulate pathogen recognition in urban mice.[21] Immunoregulatory proteins that are found on T lymphocytes are overexpressed in urban mice when compared to rural populations.[21] These findings suggest that the immune systems of NYC white-footed mice may be evolving to recognize and respond to pathogens more efficiently. The divergence between rural and urban white-footed mice is especially prominent due to impeded gene flow between these populations, which is caused by landscape barriers including roads, highways, and pedestrian sidewalks.[22] Monitoring the strength of immune defenses in P. leucopus is of special importance because they are commonly infected with dangerous pathogens such as hantaviruses and Borrelia burgdorferi.[22]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Linzey, A.V.; Matson, J. & Timm, R. (2008). "Peromyscus leucopus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008. Retrieved 5 February 2010.
  2. ^ Atlantic Interior, The Natural History of Nova Scotia
  3. ^ Mammalian models for research on aging (1981) ISBN 978-0-309-03094-6
  4. ^ RR5109-Front Cover-Hantavirus.p65
  5. ^ "WHITE-FOOTED AND DEER MICE". The Internet Center for Wildlife Damage Management. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
  6. ^ "White-footed Deermouse | Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency". www.tn.gov. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
  7. ^ Donahue JG, Piesman J, Spielman A (January 1987). "Reservoir competence of white-footed mice for Lyme disease spirochetes". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 36 (1): 92–6. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1987.36.92. PMID 3812887.
  8. ^ Jennison CA, Rodas LR, Barrett GW (2006). "Cuterebra fontinella parasitism on Peromyscus leucopus and Ochrotomys nuttalli". Southeastern Naturalist. 5 (1): 157–168. doi:10.1656/1528-7092(2006)5[157:CFPOPL]2.0.CO;2.
  9. ^ Williams, Simon H.; Che, Xiaoyu; Paulick, Ashley; Guo, Cheng; Lee, Bohyun; Muller, Dorothy; Uhlemann, Anne-Catrin; Lowy, Franklin D.; Corrigan, Robert M.; Lipkin, W. Ian (2018-05-02). Fraser, Claire M. (ed.). "New York City House Mice (Mus musculus) as Potential Reservoirs for Pathogenic Bacteria and Antimicrobial Resistance Determinants". mBio. 9 (2): e00624–18. doi:10.1128/mBio.00624-18. ISSN 2161-2129. PMC 5904414. PMID 29666289.
  10. ^ Sun Y, Desierto MJ, Ueda Y, Kajigaya S, Chen J, Young NS (2014). "Peromyscus leucopus mice: a potential animal model for haematological studies". International Journal of Experimental Pathology. 95 (5): 342–50. doi:10.1111/iep.12091. PMC 4209926. PMID 25116892.
  11. ^ "White-Footed & Deer Mice Care Sheet by Ann Vole".
  12. ^ Clive Roots; Domestication - page: 105
  13. ^ "Deer Mice and White-footed Mice". 2010-06-03.
  14. ^ a b Harris, Stephen E.; Xue, Alexander T.; Alvarado-Serrano, Diego; Boehm, Joel T.; Joseph, Tyler; Hickerson, Michael J.; Munshi-South, Jason (2016-04-01). "Urbanization shapes the demographic history of a native rodent (the white-footed mouse, Peromyscus leucopus ) in New York City". Biology Letters. 12 (4): 20150983. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0983. ISSN 1744-9561. PMC 4881337. PMID 27072402.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  15. ^ Harris, Stephen E.; Munshi‐South, Jason (2017-10-05). "Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus )". Molecular Ecology. 26 (22): 6336–6350. doi:10.1111/mec.14369. ISSN 0962-1083. PMC 5716853. PMID 28980357.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  16. ^ a b c d e f Harris, Stephen E.; Munshi‐South, Jason (2017-10-05). "Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus )". Molecular Ecology. 26 (22): 6336–6350. doi:10.1111/mec.14369. ISSN 0962-1083. PMC 5716853. PMID 28980357.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  17. ^ a b Harris, Stephen E.; Munshi-South, Jason; Obergfell, Craig; O’Neill, Rachel (2013-08-28). Johnson, Norman (ed.). "Signatures of Rapid Evolution in Urban and Rural Transcriptomes of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in the New York Metropolitan Area". PLoS ONE. 8 (8): e74938. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074938. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3756007. PMID 24015321.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  18. ^ a b c d Harris, Stephen E.; Munshi‐South, Jason (2017-10-05). "Signatures of positive selection and local adaptation to urbanization in white‐footed mice ( Peromyscus leucopus )". Molecular Ecology. 26 (22): 6336–6350. doi:10.1111/mec.14369. ISSN 0962-1083. PMC 5716853. PMID 28980357.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  19. ^ a b Harris, Stephen E.; Munshi-South, Jason; Obergfell, Craig; O’Neill, Rachel (2013-08-28). Johnson, Norman (ed.). "Signatures of Rapid Evolution in Urban and Rural Transcriptomes of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in the New York Metropolitan Area". PLoS ONE. 8 (8): e74938. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074938. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3756007. PMID 24015321.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  20. ^ Bradley, Catherine A.; Altizer, Sonia (2007-02-01). "Urbanization and the ecology of wildlife diseases". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 22 (2): 95–102. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.11.001. ISSN 0169-5347. PMC 7114918. PMID 17113678.
  21. ^ a b c Harris, Stephen (2015-09-30). "Population Genomics of White-Footed Mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in New York City". Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects.
  22. ^ a b André, A.; Millien, V.; Galan, M.; Ribas, A.; Michaux, J. R. (2017-10-01). "Effects of parasite and historic driven selection on the diversity and structure of a MHC-II gene in a small mammal species (Peromyscus leucopus) undergoing range expansion". Evolutionary Ecology. 31 (5): 785–801. doi:10.1007/s10682-017-9898-z. ISSN 1573-8477.
A captive white-footed mouse. She is at least 3 years and 8 months old.

General references

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=White-footed_mouse&oldid=1123205157"