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|''[[Oreochromis]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rasmussen |first=Cornelia |last2=Reichenbacher |first2=Bettina |last3=Lenz |first3=Olaf |last4=Altner |first4=Melanie |last5=Penk |first5=Stefanie B. R. |last6=Prieto |first6=Jerome |last7=Brüsch |first7=Dennis |date=2017 |title=Middle–late Miocene palaeoenvironments, palynological data and a fossil fish Lagerstätte from the Central Kenya Rift (East Africa) |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/geological-magazine/article/abs/middlelate-miocene-palaeoenvironments-palynological-data-and-a-fossil-fish-lagerstatte-from-the-central-kenya-rift-east-africa/5D4C894972DD38FDE116185CA8558663 |journal=Geological Magazine |language=en |volume=154 |issue=1 |pages=24–56 |doi=10.1017/S0016756815000849 |issn=0016-7568}}</ref>
|''[[Tilapia]]''<ref name=geology/>
|''T. sp.''
|''O. martyni''
|Member C
|Member C
⚫
Member D

⚫
Member E
|
|
|previously identified as ''Tilapia'' sp., inhabitant of an alkaline lake
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|''[[Oreochromimos]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Penk |first=Stefanie B. R. |last2=Altner |first2=Melanie |last3=F. Cerwenka |first3=Alexander |last4=Schliewen |first4=Ulrich K. |last5=Reichenbacher |first5=Bettina |date=2019-07-15 |title=New fossil cichlid from the middle Miocene of East Africa revealed as oldest known member of the Oreochromini |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46392-5 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=10198 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-46392-5 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
|''O. kabchorensis''
|Member C
|several complete skeletons
|oldest known member of the [[Oreochromini]]
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|-
| rowspan="4" |''[[Rebekkachromis]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kevrekidis |first=Charalampos |last2=Ruthensteiner |first2=Bernhard |last3=Cerwenka |first3=Alexander F. |last4=Penk |first4=Stefanie B. R. |last5=Reichenbacher |first5=Bettina |date=2020-07-03 |title=New Cichlid Fossils from the Middle-Late Miocene Alkaline Lakes of Africa |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2020.1805621 |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=e1805621 |doi=10.1080/02724634.2020.1805621 |issn=0272-4634}}</ref>
|''P. ngororus ''
⚫
|Member D
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| rowspan="4" |likely inhabitants of alkaline lakes, possible species flock
| rowspan="4" |
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|''P. valyricus''
|Member C
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|-
|''P. vancouveringae''
|Member C
|
|-
|''P. spp.''
|Member A
Member C
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|-
| rowspan="3" |''[[Baringochromis ]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Altner |first=Melanie |last2=Reichenbacher |first2=Bettina |date=2021-09-01 |title=A small cichlid species flock from the Upper Miocene (9–10 MYA) of Central Kenya |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-020-04358-z |journal=Hydrobiologia |language=en |volume=848 |issue=16 |pages=3613–3637 |doi=10.1007/s10750-020-04358-z |issn=1573-5117}}</ref>
|''P. ngororus ''
⚫
|Member E
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| rowspan="3" |species flock of [[haplochromine]] cichlids
| rowspan="3" |
|-
|''B. sonyii''
|Member E
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|-
|''B. tallamae''
|Member E
|
|-
|''[[Tugenchromis]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2017-03-04 |title=†Tugenchromis pickfordi, gen. et sp. nov., from the upper Miocene—a stem-group cichlid of the ‘East African Radiation’ |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2017.1297819 |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=e1297819 |doi=10.1080/02724634.2017.1297819 |issn=0272-4634}}</ref>
|''T. pickfordi''
|Member E
|partially complete skeleton
|[[Pseudocrenilabrinae|pseudocrenilabrine]] cichlid
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|-
|''[[Warilochromis]]''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Altner |first=Melanie |last2=Ruthensteiner |first2=Bernhard |last3=Reichenbacher |first3=Bettina |date=2020-06-05 |title=New haplochromine cichlid from the upper Miocene (9–10 MYA) of Central Kenya |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12862-020-01602-x |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=65 |doi=10.1186/s12862-020-01602-x |issn=1471-2148 |pmc=PMC7275555 |pmid=32503417}}</ref>
|''W. unicuspidatus''
|Member E
|
|[[Pseudocrenilabrinae|pseudocrenilabrine]] cichlid
|
|
|-
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Revision as of 22:55, 1 March 2023

Ngorora Formation
Stratigraphic range: Miocene13–10 Ma
↓
TypeFormation
UnderliesNgerngerwa Formation[1]
OverliesTiim Formation
Thickness400 m (type)
Lithology
Primaryclay, clastic rock, tuff, silt, shale, sand[2]
Location
RegionRift Valley
Country Kenya
Type section
Named forNgorora Administrative Location
Named byW.W. Bishop & G.R. Chapman
Year defined1970

The Ngorora Formation is a geological formation in Kenya preserving fossils dating to the Miocene. The uppermost member of the formation shows sign of a faunal turnover that occurred around 11 to 10.5 million years ago, coinciding with faunal changes elsewhere in the world. This turnover includes the arrival of the horse Hipparion in East Africa.[1] The Ngorora Formation was initially mapped by G.R. Chapman in collaboration with the East African Geological Research Unit (EAGRU) and formally described by Bishop & Chapman in 1970. Major fossil finds were made in the early 1970s, with expeditions to the area recovering thousands of mammal, fish and mollusc remains alongside less common fossil material of birds and reptiles.[3][2]

Geography

The formation is bordered to the west by the Elgeyo Escarpment, the east by the Laikipia Plateau and to the north by the Tiati volcanic center. To the south the formation is limited by the rising floor of the rift. During its deposition the formation contained two prominent upland areas, the topographic high of the Saimo Horst and Sidekh towards the north east, separated from the Saimo Horst by 8 km of lowland. The formation is roughly separated into four areas. Area I, the Kabarsero Type Area, split into Area Ia and Area Ib by the Kito Pass Fault; Area II west of the Cherial Fault, which includes the Tugen Hills, Kapkiamu Graben and Kaption Volcanic Complex; and Area III just south of the Saimo Horst.[2]

Geology and Stratigraphy

The basin the Ngorora Formation was deposited in is floored by the rocks of the underlying Tiim Formation and has seen repeated tectonic and volcanic activity around and during its deposition.

  • Member A
Member A is a thick layer that consists of volcaniclastic material and clay in Area I of the region. The coarse volcanic sediments likely originated from the possibly reached this part of the formation in the form of lahars originating from the Kaption Volcanic Complex to the south-west.
  • Member B
Member B shows a mix of gritty tuff beds, clay and silt. The lapilli tuff in Area I possibly correlates with similar lithology of Area II and on the upthrow of the Kito Pass Fault the layers of clay and silt found in the type area of the Member are absent, leaving sandy and gritty layers of tuff to lie directly over one another.
  • Member C
The layers of Member C are closely overlying each other and consist of clay and shale with some sand in Area Ia, while in Area Ib slight erosion and channeling can be observed. The shale originated almost entirely through chemical precipitation while the clay likely originated through the erosion of the underlying Tiim Formation.
  • Member D
Member D shows a mix of clay layers cross-bedded with gritty and silty tuffs. Slumps, fissures and faults indicate increased tectonic activity affecting the area during its time of deposition. Area III preserves a mix of red marbled earth and silt which may be equivalent to Member D. Following major faulting at Cheprimok, 130 meters of sediment of this member eroded in the Ngorora Formation, causing Member E to rest unconformably atop of Member A and even overstepping onto the Tiim Formation. This faulting event was widespread and even affected Area II 20 kilometers away.
  • Member E
Another faulting event preceded the deposition of Member E, marking the return of lacustrine conditions as evident by kieselgur (sediments originating from algae) and fish-bearing shales. However tectonic uplift of the Kito Pass and Saimo Faults caused much of the record of this member to be lost to erosion.

During the deposition of the Ngorora Formation the area shows several signs of volcanic activity. The Kaption volcano in Area II is likely responsible for much of the lahar and tuff found in Area I. The Laikipia Area and Tiati volcanic center likewise contributed to the volcanic material of the formation.[2]

Paleoenvironment

The Ngorora Formation shows a great variety of environments and conditions throughout its stratigraphy. Mudcracks, Caliche, plant remains, bird footprints, channeling, signs of evaporation as well as various algae-based sediments all show signs of varying dry and wet conditions during the Miocene.

Member A preserves the bones of proboscideans and rhinos as well as the remains of reptiles and fish and represents an originally lacustrine environment with minor fluvial elements, all affected by lahas and other volcanic activity.

During the deposition of Member B Kaption Volcano was still active at irregular intervals. Member B shows signs of channeling caused by flowing water and flourishing plant growth (evidenced by root casts). At Kalimale weathering and plant growth were so extreme that all of the lapilli in a 45 cm thick layer was destroyed. The fauna of the member is of little use however, as the presence of channels means that animal material was likely derived from various localities over a great distance. Ruminant remains however have been used to derive an open or lightly wooded grassland habitat.

Lake Magadi, an alkine lake in Kenya

After increased volcanic and tectonic activity at the beginning of Member C's deposition, three lakes formed in various regions of the formation. At least Kabarsero Lake in Area Ia was freshwater, evidence of which can be found in the presence of diatoms and freshwater crabs. Kapkiamu Lake meanwhile was likely alkaline and inhabited by stunted species of the genus Tilapia. Similar conditions can be observed in the modern-day Lake Magadi, home to Alcolapia grahami. The rhythmic nature of the shale and clay deposits of Member C indicate seasonally fluctuating climate conditions, further supported by the growth rings of fossil wood. The two lakes were separated by 8 kilometers, which is not unusual given similar occurrences of freshwater and alkaline lakes in the modern day Rift Valley. The area between the lakes was covered by vigorously growing plant life, which lead to the creation of paleosol. The third lake west of Kaption Volcano was also freshwater.

Member D shows increased channeling indicative of rejuvenation through freshwater, which suggests a return of fluvial conditions as present in Member B. Also like in Member B, ruminants are used to infer an open or lightly wooded grassland environment in Area Ia. In Area Ib, ostracods, fish and crabs are all found in marginal lacustrine deposits at Kalimale. This lake underwent varying water levels and frequently dried up.[2]

One particular locality within the lower members (12.6 Ma) of the Ngorora Formation is interpreted to have been a submontaine to lowland rainforest environment preserved by the ash from a local volcanic eruption. The presence of mostly microphyllous (small sized, single veined) leaves and only one leptophyllous (long, slender) leaf indicate a moist to wet environment for the preserved forest habitat. Of the preserved plant fossils, 15% can be classified as herbs, 5% as herbs or shrubs, 12% lianas and 62% as shrubs or trees. Some bias towards herbaceous plants is present due to the preservation through ashfall and the preserved leaves of shrubs and trees are consistent with leaf fall that occurs in forests. The locality shows no signs of a present leaflitter, either due to decomposition following ashfall or due to the rapid decay of plant material in tropical, wet forest environments (in particular during the wet season, prior to increased leaf fall with the onset of the dry season).[4]

Paleofauna

Color key
Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon
Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited.

Molluscs

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Bellamya[2] B. sp.
Bellamya dissimilis
Lanistes[2] L. sp.
Lanistes bernardianus
Melanoides[2] M. tuberculata
Melanoides tuberculata
Mutela[2] M. sp.
Mutela bourguignati
Pleiodon[2] P. sp.
Pleiodon ovatus

Annelids

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Annelidae indet.[2] Member C

Member D

Member E

Arthropods

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Candona[2] C. sp.
Coleoptera indet.[2]
Diptera indet.[2]
Heterocypris?[2] H. sp.?
Isoptera indet.[2]
Lepidoptera indet.[2]
Limnicythere[2] L. sp.
Metacypris[2] M. sp.
Potamon[2] C. sp.

Fish

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
cf. Clarias[2] cf. C. sp. Member D

Member E

Cyprinidae indet.[2] Member C
Oreochromis[5] O. martyni Member C previously identified as Tilapia sp., inhabitant of an alkaline lake
Oreochromimos[6] O. kabchorensis Member C several complete skeletons oldest known member of the Oreochromini
Rebekkachromis[7] P. ngororus Member D likely inhabitants of alkaline lakes, possible species flock
P. valyricus Member C
P. vancouveringae Member C
P. spp. Member A

Member C

Baringochromis [8] P. ngororus Member E species flock of haplochromine cichlids
B. sonyii Member E
B. tallamae Member E
Tugenchromis[9] T. pickfordi Member E partially complete skeleton pseudocrenilabrine cichlid
Warilochromis[10] W. unicuspidatus Member E pseudocrenilabrine cichlid

Reptiles

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Crocodylus[2] C. sp. Member A

Member B

Member C

Member D

Member E

Crocodylus niloticus
Ophidia indet.[2]
Pelusios[2] P. cf. sinuatus Member A

Member B

Member E

Serrated Hinged Terrapin (Pelusios sinuatus)
Testudo[2] T. sp. Member D
Trionyx[2] T. sp. Member B

Member D

Member E

Varanidae indet. Member B[2]

Member D

Birds

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Anhinga[11] A. cf. pannonica proximal end of the humerus
Leptoptilos[12] L. sp. Member C a partial skeleton composed mostly of limb bones one of the oldest known marabou skeletons
an extant species of marabou
Struthio[13] S. sp. Member C limb bones distinct from the roughly contemporary S. coppensi

Mammals

Afrotheres

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Deinotherium[2] D. bozasi Member D
Afrochoerodon[14] A. ngorora Member A

Member D

Member E

a choerolophodontine gomphothere
Macroscelididae indet.[2] an indetermined elephant shrew
Myorycteropus [15] M. chemeldoi Member B a type of aardvark
Parapliohyrax[16] P. ngororaensis Member B

Member C

Member D

Member E

a type of hyrax

Artiodactyles

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Albanohyus[17] A. cf. castellensis skull without teeth a possible ancestor of Cainochoerus
Anthracotheriidae indet.[15]
Climacoceras[15] C. gentryi a giraffid
Cephalophini? indet.[2] an indetermined species of duiker
Dorcatherium [15] D. sp. a genus of mouse deer
Dorcatherium
Gazella[2] G. sp.
Homoiodorcas[18] H. tugenicum
Kenyapotamus [19][20] K. sp. Member D Member E molars the possible ancestor of the modern hippos
Kipsigicerus[18] K. labidotus a close relative of the Four-horned antelope
Kipsigicerus labidotus
Lagomerycidae indet.[2]
Listriodon[21] L. bartulensis Member A mandible and teeth the molars of this species are notably smaller than that of Eurasian taxa
mandible of Listriodon splendens from Europe
Lopholistriodon[21] L. kidogosana Member B

Member C

Member D

skull and teeth as well as a fragment of a mandibular symphysis Lopholistriodon marks another decrease in size within the African listriodontine lineage
"Palaeotragus"[22] "P. primaevus" a potential new genus and species in need of revision
Palaeotragus-Tianjin Natural History Museum
Protoryx[18] P. sp.
Pseudotragus?[15] P.? gentryi
Samotherium?[2] S. sp. a genus of giraffid
Samotherium skull angled view from the Natural History Museum collections
Sivoreas[23] S. eremita Member A

Member C

Member D

horn cores a boselaphine bovid

Carnivorans

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Amphicyonidae indet.[24] molar
Dissopsalis[25] Dissopsalis pyroclasticus an incomplete first or second molar A genus of teratodontine hyaenodontid.
Eomellivora[26] E. tugenensis Member D a broken snout a relative of the modern honey badger of similar size
the mandible of the related Eomellivora piveteaui (Spain)
Herpestidae indet.[26] Member A a right mandible an indetermined mongoose
Megistotherium[26] M. osteothlastes Member A

Member D

a damaged molar and distal end of a humerus the youngest known remains of the genus
Megistotherium (centor)
Myacyon[27] M. kiptalami Member D a snout broken behind the second molar a species as large or slightly larger than an African Lion, originally considered to belong to the genus Agnotherium[26]
Percrocuta [26] P. tobieni Member B

Member D Member E

a left mandible fragment a lioness-sized genus of percrocutids or true hyaenas
Tugenictis[26] T. ngororaensis Member A a right molar a genus of viverrid similar in size to the African Civet
Vishnuonyx[26] V. chinjiensis Member D a premolar a genus of otter
Viverridae indet.[26] Member B a mandible with fragments of the premolars the morphology resembles the genus Genetta more than it does Viverra and is slightly larger

Perissodactyls

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Aceratherium/Dicerorhinus[2]
Brachypotherium[28] B. sp. although the genus was reported, no detailed description or figures were given, rendering a more detailed assignment not possible
Chilotheridium[29] C. sp. Member E a maxillary fragment including several teeth originally described as C. pattersoni, subsequent research showed the fossil is not well preserved enough for such an assignment
Hipparion[1] H. sp. Member E tooth fragments and other remains dated to 11 to 10.5 Ma, the fossils at Ngorora indicate a rapid dispersal of the genus throughout Africa and Eurasia
Hipparion gracile skull

Primates

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Catarrhini indet. canine possible hominoid clearly distinct from Proconsul[15]
Hominoidea indet. Member C incisor and premolar a large hominoid similar to Proconsul or Equatorius[15]
Victoriapithecus V. sp. Member B

Member C

various teeth possibly a new species of the genus[15]
Victoriapithecus

Rodents

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Cricetidae indet. A[2]
Cricetidae indet. B[2]
Dendromurinae indet.[2]
Pedetidae?[2] Member B
Phiomyidae[2]
cf. Vulcanisciurus[30] cf. Vulcanisciurus sp. A genus of squirrel.

Paleoflora

Name Species Member Material Notes Image
Acalypha[4] A. sp. a type of herb/shrub
Acalypha hidpida
Acanthaceae[4]
Artabotrys[4] A. sp. a type of shrub
Artabotrys hexapetalus
Bignoniaceae[4]
cf. Cola[4] cf. C. sp. a species of the tree canopy
Cola acuminata, flower of the Kola Nut tree
Dioscorea[4] D. sp. a liana
Dioscorea sansibarensis
Graminae[4] a type of grass
Icacinaceae[4]
Lasiodiscus[4] L. sp. an understory taxon
Lasiodiscus mildbraedii
Loganiaceae/Melastomataceae[4]
Menispermaceae[4]
Myrtaceae[4]
Mystroxylon[4] M. sp. a type of shrub/tree
Mystroxylon aethiopicum subsp schlechteri
Olacaceae[4]
Pollia P. tugenensis[31] stems, leaves and fruit a dominant plant of the herbaceous layer, Pollia tugenensis likely grew in clusters
the fruit of P. tugenensis resemble those of the Marble Berry (Pollia condensata), the leaves however are closer to P. zollingeri
Rauvolfia[4] R. sp. a tree or shrub
Rauvolfia tetraphylla
Rubiaceae[4]
Rutaceae[4]
Sapindaceae[4]
cf. Sapium[4] cf. S. sp. a type of milkree
Sapium glandulosum
cf. Sapotaceae[4]
Tiliaceae[4]
Violaceae[4]
cf. Zizyphus[4] cf. Z. sp. a spiny shrub/tree of the buckthorn family
Zizyphus sp.

References

  1. ^ a b c Pickford, H.M.L. (2001). "Equidae in the Ngorora Formation, Kenya, and the first appearance of the family in East Africa". Spanish Journal of Paleontology. 16 (2): 339–345. ISSN 0213-6937.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an Bishop, W.W.; Pickford, M.H.L. (1975). "Geology, fauna and paleoenvironments of the Ngorora Formation, Kenya Rift Valley". Nature. 254 (5497): 185–192. Bibcode:1975Natur.254..185B. doi:10.1038/254185a0. S2CID 4224993.
  3. ^ Bishop, W.W.; Chapman, G.R. (1970). "Early Pliocene Sediments and Fossils from the Northern Kenya Rift Valley". Nature. 226 (5249): 914–918. Bibcode:1970Natur.226..914B. doi:10.1038/226914a0. PMID 16057593. S2CID 4289662.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Jacobs, B.F.; Winkler, D.A. (1992). "Taphonomy of a middle Miocene autochthonous forest assemblage, Ngorora Formation, central Kenya". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 99 (1–2): 31–40. Bibcode:1992PPP....99...31J. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(92)90005-P.
  5. ^ Rasmussen, Cornelia; Reichenbacher, Bettina; Lenz, Olaf; Altner, Melanie; Penk, Stefanie B. R.; Prieto, Jerome; Brüsch, Dennis (2017). "Middle–late Miocene palaeoenvironments, palynological data and a fossil fish Lagerstätte from the Central Kenya Rift (East Africa)". Geological Magazine. 154 (1): 24–56. doi:10.1017/S0016756815000849. ISSN 0016-7568.
  6. ^ Penk, Stefanie B. R.; Altner, Melanie; F. Cerwenka, Alexander; Schliewen, Ulrich K.; Reichenbacher, Bettina (2019-07-15). "New fossil cichlid from the middle Miocene of East Africa revealed as oldest known member of the Oreochromini". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 10198. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46392-5. ISSN 2045-2322.
  7. ^ Kevrekidis, Charalampos; Ruthensteiner, Bernhard; Cerwenka, Alexander F.; Penk, Stefanie B. R.; Reichenbacher, Bettina (2020-07-03). "New Cichlid Fossils from the Middle-Late Miocene Alkaline Lakes of Africa". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 40 (4): e1805621. doi:10.1080/02724634.2020.1805621. ISSN 0272-4634.
  8. ^ Altner, Melanie; Reichenbacher, Bettina (2021-09-01). "A small cichlid species flock from the Upper Miocene (9–10 MYA) of Central Kenya". Hydrobiologia. 848 (16): 3613–3637. doi:10.1007/s10750-020-04358-z. ISSN 1573-5117.
  9. ^ "†Tugenchromis pickfordi, gen. et sp. nov., from the upper Miocene—a stem-group cichlid of the 'East African Radiation'". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 37 (2): e1297819. 2017-03-04. doi:10.1080/02724634.2017.1297819. ISSN 0272-4634.
  10. ^ Altner, Melanie; Ruthensteiner, Bernhard; Reichenbacher, Bettina (2020-06-05). "New haplochromine cichlid from the upper Miocene (9–10 MYA) of Central Kenya". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 20 (1): 65. doi:10.1186/s12862-020-01602-x. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 7275555. PMID 32503417.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Dyke, G.J.; Walker, C.A. (2008). "New Records of Fossil 'Waterbirds' from the Miocene of Kenya". American Museum Novitates (3610): 1–10. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2008)3610[1:NROFWF]2.0.CO;2.
  12. ^ Walker, A.; Hill, A. (1978). "A fossil marabou (Aves: Ciconiidae) from the Miocene Ngorora formation, Baringo district, Kenya". Netherlands Journal of Zoology. 29 (2): 215–221. doi:10.1163/002829679X00287.
  13. ^ Leonard, L.M.; Dyke, G.J.; Walker, C.A. (2006). "New specimens of a fossil ostrich from the Miocene of Kenya". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 45 (4–5): 391–394. Bibcode:2006JAfES..45..391L. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2006.03.007.
  14. ^ Pickford, M. (2001). "Afrochoerodon nov. gen. kisumuensis (MacInnes) (Proboscidea, Mammalia) from Cheparawa, Middle Miocene, Kenya". Annales de Paléontologie. 87 (2): 99–117. doi:10.1016/S0753-3969(01)80005-7.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h Hill, A.; Leakey, M.; Kingston, J.D.; Ward, S. (2002). "New cercopithecoids and a hominoid from 12.5 Ma in the Tugen Hills succession, Kenya". Journal of Human Evolution. 42 (1–2): 75–93. doi:10.1006/jhev.2001.0518. PMID 11795969.
  16. ^ Pickford, M. (1987). "Parapliohyrax ngororaensis, a new hyracoid from the Miocene of Kenya, with an outline of the classification of Neogene Hyracoidea". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie. 175 (2): 207–234.
  17. ^ Van Der Made, J. (1996). "Albanohyus, a small Miocene pig". Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia. 39 (1): 293–303.
  18. ^ a b c Kauffman, E.G.; Walliser, O.H. (1990). "Extinction Events in Earth History Volume 30: Mammal extinctions in the Vallesian (Upper Miocene)". Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences. doi:10.1007/bfb0011163.
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