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Other notable ''Pseudomonas'' species with biocontrol properties include ''[[Pseudomonas chlororaphis]]'' which produces a [[phenazine]] type [[antibiotic]] active agent against certain [[fungus|fungal]] plant pathogens<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chin-A-Woeng TF, ''et al.'' |title=Root colonization by phenazine-1-carboxamide-producing bacterium ''Pseudomonas chlororaphis'' PCL1391 is essential for biocontrol of tomato foot and root rot. |journal=Mol Plant Microbe Interact |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1340-5 |year=2000 |pmid=11106026 }}</ref>, and the closely related species ''[[Pseudomonas aurantiaca]]'' which produces di-2,4-diacetylfluoroglucylmethan, a compound [[antibiotic]]ally active against [[Gram-positive]] organisms<ref>{{cite journal |author=Esipov, ''et al.'' |title=New antibiotically active fluoroglucide from ''Pseudomonas aurantiaca'' |journal=Antibiotiki |volume=20 |issue=12 |pages=1077-81 |year=1975 |pmid=1225181 }}</ref>.
Other notable ''Pseudomonas'' species with biocontrol properties include ''[[Pseudomonas chlororaphis]]'' which produces a [[phenazine]] type [[antibiotic]] active agent against certain [[fungus|fungal]] plant pathogens<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chin-A-Woeng TF, ''et al.'' |title=Root colonization by phenazine-1-carboxamide-producing bacterium ''Pseudomonas chlororaphis'' PCL1391 is essential for biocontrol of tomato foot and root rot. |journal=Mol Plant Microbe Interact |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1340-5 |year=2000 |pmid=11106026 }}</ref>, and the closely related species ''[[Pseudomonas aurantiaca]]'' which produces di-2,4-diacetylfluoroglucylmethan, a compound [[antibiotic]]ally active against [[Gram-positive]] organisms<ref>{{cite journal |author=Esipov, ''et al.'' |title=New antibiotically active fluoroglucide from ''Pseudomonas aurantiaca'' |journal=Antibiotiki |volume=20 |issue=12 |pages=1077-81 |year=1975 |pmid=1225181 }}</ref>.

==Use as bioremediation agents==

Some members of the genus ''Pseudomonas'' are able to metabolise chemical pollutants in the environment, and as a result can be used for [[bioremediation]]. Notable species demonstrated as suitable for use as bioremediation agents include:

* ''[[Pseudomonas alcaligenes]]'', which can degrade polycyclic aromatic [[hydrocarbons]]<ref>O'Mahony MM, Dobson AD, Barnes JD, Singleton I. (2006) The use of ozone in the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil. Chemosphere 63(2):307-14. PMID 16153687</ref>.
* ''[[Pseudomonas mendocina]]'', which is able to degrade [[toluene]]<ref>Yen KM, Karl MR, Blatt LM, Simon MJ, Winter RB, Fausset PR, Lu HS, Harcourt AA, Chen KK. (1991) Cloning and characterization of a ''Pseudomonas mendocina'' KR1 gene cluster encoding toluene-4-monooxygenase. Journal of Bacteriology 173(17):5315-27. PMID 1885512</ref>.
* ''[[Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes]]'' is able to use [[cyanide]] as a [[nitrogen]] source<ref>Huertas MJ, Luque-Almagro VM, Martinez-Luque M, Blasco R, Moreno-Vivian C, Castillo F, Roldan MD. (2006) Cyanide metabolism of ''Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes'' CECT5344: role of siderophores. Biochemical Society Transactions 34(Pt 1):152-5. PMID 16417508</ref>.
* ''[[Pseudomonas resinovorans]]'' can degrade [[carbazole]]<ref>Nojiri H, Maeda K, Sekiguchi H, Urata M, Shintani M, Yoshida T, Habe H, Omori T. (2002) Organization and transcriptional characterization of catechol degradation genes involved in carbazole degradation by ''Pseudomonas resinovorans'' strain CA10. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 66(4):897-901. PMID 12036072 </ref>.
* ''[[Pseudomonas veronii]]'' has been shown to degrade a variety of simple [[aromatic]] [[organic]] compounds<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nam, ''et al.'' |title=A novel catabolic activity of ''Pseudomonas veronii'' in biotransformation of pentachlorophenol |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=62 |pages=284-90 |year=2003 |pmid=12883877 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Onaca, ''et al.'' |title=Degradation of alkyl methyl ketones by ''Pseudomonas veronii'' |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |[Epub ahead of print] |year=2007 Mar 9 |pmid=17351032 }}</ref>.
* ''[[Pseudomonas putida]]'' has the ability to degrade organic solvents such as [[toluene]]<ref>Marques S, Ramos JL. (1993) Transcriptional control of the ''Pseudomonas putida'' TOL plasmid catabolic pathways. Molecular Microbiology 9(5):923-9. PMID 7934920</ref>.
* Strain KC of ''[[Pseuomonas stutzeri]]'' is able to degrade [[carbon tetrachloride]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sepulveda-Torres, ''et al.'' |title=Generation and initial characterization of ''Pseudomonas stutzeri'' KC mutants with impaired ability to degrade carbon tetrachloride |journal=Arch Microbiol |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=424-9 |year=1999 |pmid=10369898 }}</ref>.



==Species previously classified in the genus ''Pseudomonas''==
==Species previously classified in the genus ''Pseudomonas''==

Revision as of 20:18, 21 April 2007

Pseudomonas
P. aeruginosa colonies on an agar plate.
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Bacteria
Phylum:
Proteobacteria
Class:
Gamma Proteobacteria
Order:
Pseudomonadales
Family:
Pseudomonadaceae
Genus:
Pseudomonas

Migula 1894
Species

P. aeruginosa group

P. aeruginosa
P. alcaligenes
P. anguilliseptica
P. argentinensis
P. citronellolis
P. flavescens
P. mendocina
P. nitroreducens
P. oleovorans
P. pseudoalcaligenes
P. resinovorans
P. straminea

P. chlororaphis group

P. aurantiaca
P. aureofaciens
P. chlororaphis
P. fragi
P. lundensis
P. taetrolens

P. fluorescens group

P. antarctica
P. azotoformans
P. cedrina
P. corrugata
P. fluorescens
P. gessardii
P. libanensis
P. mandelii
P. marginalis
P. mediterranea
P. meridiana
P. migulae
P. mucidolens
P. orientalis
P. panacis
P. proteolytica
P. rhodesiae
P. synxantha
P. tolaasii
P. veronii

P. pertucinogena group

P. denitrificans
P. pertucinogena

P. putida group

P. cremoricolorata
P. fulva
P. monteilii
P. mosselii
P. oryzihabitans
P. parafulva
P. plecoglossicida
P. putida

P. stutzeri group

P. balearica
P. luteola
P. stutzeri

P. syringae group

P. amygdali
P. avellanae
P. caricapapayae
P. cichorii
P. coronafaciens
P. ficuserectae
P. meliae
P. savastanoi
P. syringae
P. viridiflava

incertae sedis

P. abietaniphila
P. agarici
P. alcaliphila
P. asplenii
P. azotifigens
P. blatchfordae
P. borbori
P. brassicacearum
P. brenneri
P. cannabina
P. coenobios
P. congelans
P. costantinii
P. cruciviae
P. delhiensis
P. excibis
P. extremorientalis
P. frederiksbergensis
P. fuscovaginae
P. gelidicola
P. grimontii
P. indica
P. jessenii
P. jinjuensis
P. kilonensis
P. knackmussii
P. koreensis
P. lini
P. lutea
P. moraviensis
P. otitidis
P. pachastrellae
P. palleroniana
P. papaveris
P. peli
P. perolens
P. poae
P. pohangensis
P. psychrophila
P. psychrotolerans
P. rathonis
P. reptilivora
P. resiniphila
P. rhizosphaerae
P. rubescens
P. salomonii
P. segitis
P. septica
P. simiae
P. suis
P. thermotolerans
P. thivervalensis
P. tremae
P. trivialis
P. turbinellae
P. tuticorinensis
P. umsongensis
P. vancouverensis
P. vranovensis
P. xanthomarina

Pseudomonas is a genus of gamma proteobacteria. The name Pseudomonas loosely means 'false unit', being derived from the Greek words pseudo ('false') and monas ('a single unit').

Defining characteristics

Members of the genus display the following defining characteristics:[1]

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the type species for the genus.

Other characteristics which tend to be associated with Pseudomonas species (although there are some exceptions) include secretion of pyoverdin (also known as fluorescein), a fluorescent yellow-green siderophore[2] under iron-limiting conditions; certain Pseudomonas species may also produce additional types of siderophore, such as pyocyanin by Pseudomonas aeruginosa[3] and thioquinolobactin by Pseudomonas fluorescens[4], for example. Pseudomonas species also typically give a positive result to the oxidase test, the absence of gas formation from glucose, glucose is oxidised in oxidation/fermentation test using Hugh and Leifson O/F test, hemolytic (on blood agar), indole negative, methyl red negative, Voges Proskauer test negative.

The genus demonstrates a great deal of metabolic diversity, and consequently are able to colonise a wide range of niches. [5] Their ease of culture in vitro and availability of an increasing number of Pseudomonas strain genome sequences has made the genus an excellent focus for scientific research; the best studied species include Pseudomonas aeruginosa in its role as an opportunistic human pathogen, the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae, the soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida, and the plant growth promoting Pseudomonas fluorescens.

Biofilm formation

All species and strains of Pseudomonas are Gram-negative rods, and have historically been classified as strict aerobes. Exceptions to this classification have recently been discovered in Pseudomonas biofilms.[6] A significant number can produce exopolysaccharides that are known as slime layers. Secretion of exopolysaccharide makes it difficult for Pseudomonads to be phagocytosed by mammalian white blood cells.[7] Slime production also contributes to surface-colonising biofilms which are difficult to remove from food preparation surfaces. Growth of Pseudomonads on spoiling foods can generate a "fruity" odor.

Pseudomonas have the ability to metabolise a variety of diverse nutrients. Combined with the ability to form biofilms, they are thus able to survive in a variety of unexpected places. For example, they have been found in areas where pharmaceuticals are prepared. A simple carbon source, such as soap residue or cap liner-adhesives is a suitable place for the Pseudomonads to thrive. Other unlikely places where they have been found include antiseptics such as quaternary ammonium compounds and bottled mineral water.

Antibiotic resistance

Being gram-negative bacteria, most Pseudomonas spp. are naturally resistant to penicillin and the majority of related beta-lactam antibiotics, but a number are sensitive to piperacillin, imipenem, tobramycin, or ciprofloxacin.[7]

This ability to thrive in harsh conditions is a result of their hardy cell wall that contains porins. Their resistance to most antibiotics is attributed to efflux pumps called ABC transporters, which pump out some antibiotics before they are able to act.

Pseudomonas species as pathogens

Animal pathogens

P. aeruginosa is an opportunistic human pathogen, most commonly affecting patients already suffering from cystic fibrosis[8] or AIDS[9] who are immunocompromised as a result. Infection can affect many different parts of the body, but infections typically target the respiratory tract, causing bacterial pneumonia. Treatment of such infections can be difficult due to multiple antibiotic resistance[10].

P. oryzihabitans can also be a human pathogen, although infections are rare. It can cause peritonitis[11], endophthalmitis[12], septicemia and bacteremia. Similar symptoms although also very rare can be seen by infections of P. luteola[13].

P. plecoglossicida is a fish pathogenic species, causing hemorrhagic ascites in the ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis)[14]. P. anguilliseptica is also a fish pathogen[15].

Plant pathogens

P. syringae is a prolific plant pathogen. It exists as over 50 different pathovars, many of which demonstrate a high degree of host plant specificity. There are numerous other Pseudomonas species that can act as plant pathogens, notably all of the other members of the P. syringae subgroup, but P. syringae is the most widespread and best studied.

Although not strictly a plant pathogen, P. tolaasii can be a major agricultural problem, as it can cause bacterial blotch of cultivated mushrooms[16]. Similarly, Pseudomonas agarici can cause drippy gill in cultivated mushrooms[17].

Use as biocontrol agents

Since the mid 1980s, certain members of the Pseudomonas genus have been applied to cereal seeds or applied directly to soils as a way of preventing the growth or establishment of crop pathogens. This practice is generically referred to as biocontrol. The bioncontrol properties of Pseudomonas fluorescens strains (CHA0 or Pf-5 for example) are currently best understood, although it is not clear exactly how the plant growth promoting properties of P. fluorescens are achieved. Theories include: that the bacteria might induce systemic resistance in the host plant, so it can better resist attack by a true pathogen; the bacteria might out compete other (pathogenic) soil microbes, e.g. by siderophores giving a competitive advantage at scavenging for iron; the bacteria might produce compounds antagonistic to other soil microbes, such as phenazine-type antibiotics or hydrogen cyanide. There is experimental evidence to support all of these theories, in certain conditions; a good review of the topic is written by Haas and Defago[18].

Other notable Pseudomonas species with biocontrol properties include Pseudomonas chlororaphis which produces a phenazine type antibiotic active agent against certain fungal plant pathogens[19], and the closely related species Pseudomonas aurantiaca which produces di-2,4-diacetylfluoroglucylmethan, a compound antibiotically active against Gram-positive organisms[20].

Use as bioremediation agents

Some members of the genus Pseudomonas are able to metabolise chemical pollutants in the environment, and as a result can be used for bioremediation. Notable species demonstrated as suitable for use as bioremediation agents include:


Species previously classified in the genus Pseudomonas

Recently, 16S rRNA sequence analysis redefined the taxonomy of many bacterial species previously classified as being in the Pseudomonas genus[29]. Species which moved from the Pseudomonas genus are listed below; clicking on a species will show its new classification. Note that the term 'Pseudomonad' does not apply strictly to just the Pseudomonas genus, and can be used to also include previous members such as the genera Burkholderia and Ralstonia.

α proteobacteria: P. abikonensis, P. aminovorans, P. carboxydohydrogena, P. carboxidovorans, P. compransoris, P. diminuta, P. echinoides, P. extorquens, P. lindneri, P. mesophilica, P. paucimobilis, P. radiora, P. rhodos, P. riboflavina, P. rosea, P. vesicularis.

β proteobacteria: P. acidovorans, P. alliicola, P. antimicrobica, P. avenae, P. butanovorae, P. caryophylli, P. cattleyae, P. cepacia, P. cocovenenans, P. delafieldii, P. facilis, P. flava, P. gladioli, P. glathei, P. glumae, P. graminis, P. huttiensis, P. indigofera, P. lanceolata, P. lemoignei, P. mallei, P. mephitica, P. mixta, P. palleronii, P. phenazinium, P. pickettii, P. plantarii, P. pseudoflava, P. pseudomallei, P. pyrrocinia, P. rubrilineans, P. rubrisubalbicans, P. saccharophila, P. solanacearum, P. spinosa, P. syzygii, P. taeniospiralis, P. terrigena, P. testosteroni.

γ-β proteobacteria: P. beteli, P. boreopolis, P. cissicola, P. geniculata, P. hibiscicola, P. maltophilia, P. pictorum.

γ proteobacteria: P. beijerinckii, P. diminuta, P. doudoroffii, P. elongata, P. flectens, P. halodurans, P. halophila, P. iners, P. marina, P. nautica, P. nigrifaciens, P. pavonacea, P. piscicida, P. stanieri.

δ proteobacteria: P. formicans.

References

  1. ^ Krieg, N.R. (Ed.) (1984) Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume 1. Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0683041088
  2. ^ Meyer JM, Geoffroy VA, Baida N, Gardan L, Izard D, Lemanceau P, Achouak W, Palleroni NJ. (2002) Siderophore typing, a powerful tool for the identification of fluorescent and nonfluorescent pseudomonads. Applied Environmental Microbiology. 68(6):2745-53. PMID 12039729
  3. ^ Lau GW, Hassett DJ, Ran H, Kong F. (2004) The role of pyocyanin in Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Trends in Molecular Medicine 10(12):599-606. PMID 15567330
  4. ^ Matthijs S, Tehrani KA, Laus G, Jackson RW, Cooper RM, Cornelis P. (2007) Thioquinolobactin, a Pseudomonas siderophore with antifungal and anti-Pythium activity. Environmental Microbiology 9(2):425-34. PMID 17222140
  5. ^ Madigan M; Martinko J (editors). (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed. ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131443291. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Hassett D, Cuppoletti J, Trapnell B, Lymar S, Rowe J, Yoon S, Hilliard G, Parvatiyar K, Kamani M, Wozniak D, Hwang S, McDermott T, Ochsner U (2002). "Anaerobic metabolism and quorum sensing by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in chronically infected cystic fibrosis airways: rethinking antibiotic treatment strategies and drug targets". Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 54 (11): 1425–43. PMID 12458153.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ a b Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed. ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0838585299. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Elkin S, Geddes D. (2003) Pseudomonal infection in cystic fibrosis: the battle continues. Expert Review of Anti Infective Therapy 1(4):609-18. PMID 15482158
  9. ^ Shanson DC. (1990) Septicaemia in patients with AIDS. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84 Suppl 1:14-6. PMID 2201108
  10. ^ McGowan JE Jr. (2006) Resistance in nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. The American Journal of Medicine 119(6 Suppl 1):S29-36; discussion S62-70. PMID 16735148
  11. ^ Levitski-Heikkila TV, Ullian ME. (2005) Peritonitis with multiple rare environmental bacteria in a patient receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis. American Journal of Kidney Disease 46(6):e119-24. PMID 16310563
  12. ^ Yu EN, Foster CS. (2002) Chronic postoperative endophthalmitis due to Pseudomonas oryzihabitans. American Journal of Ophthalmology 134(4):613-4. PMID 12383826
  13. ^ Kodama, et al. "Two new species of Pseudomonas: P. oryzihabitans isolated from rice paddy and clinical specimens and P. luteola isolated from clinical specimens." Int J Syst Bacteriol. 35: 467-474, 1985.
  14. ^ Nishimori, et al. "Pseudomonas plecoglossicida sp. nov., the causative agent of bacterial haemorrhagic ascites of ayu, Plecoglossus altivelis." Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2000 Jan; 50 Pt 1:83-9. PMID 10826790
  15. ^ Lopez-Romalde S, Magarinos B, Ravelo C, Toranzo AE, Romalde JL. (2003) Existence of two O-serotypes in the fish pathogen Pseudomonas anguilliseptica. Veterinary Microbiology 30;94(4):325-33. PMID 12829386
  16. ^ Brodey, C.L., Rainey, P.B., Tester, M. and Johnstone, K. ( 1991) Bacterial blotch disease of the cultivated mushroom is caused by an ion channel forming lipodepsipeptide toxin. Molecular Plant–Microbe Interaction 1, 407– 411.
  17. ^ Young, JM (1970). "Drippy gill: a bacterial disease of cultivated mushrooms caused by Pseudomonas agarici n. sp". NZ J Agric Res. 13: 977–990.
  18. ^ Haas D, Defago G (2005). "Biological control of soil-borne pathogens by fluorescent pseudomonads". Nature Reviews in Microbiology. 3 (4): 307–19. PMID 15759041.
  19. ^ Chin-A-Woeng TF; et al. (2000). "Root colonization by phenazine-1-carboxamide-producing bacterium Pseudomonas chlororaphis PCL1391 is essential for biocontrol of tomato foot and root rot". Mol Plant Microbe Interact. 13 (12): 1340–5. PMID 11106026. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  20. ^ Esipov; et al. (1975). "New antibiotically active fluoroglucide from Pseudomonas aurantiaca". Antibiotiki. 20 (12): 1077–81. PMID 1225181. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  21. ^ O'Mahony MM, Dobson AD, Barnes JD, Singleton I. (2006) The use of ozone in the remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contaminated soil. Chemosphere 63(2):307-14. PMID 16153687
  22. ^ Yen KM, Karl MR, Blatt LM, Simon MJ, Winter RB, Fausset PR, Lu HS, Harcourt AA, Chen KK. (1991) Cloning and characterization of a Pseudomonas mendocina KR1 gene cluster encoding toluene-4-monooxygenase. Journal of Bacteriology 173(17):5315-27. PMID 1885512
  23. ^ Huertas MJ, Luque-Almagro VM, Martinez-Luque M, Blasco R, Moreno-Vivian C, Castillo F, Roldan MD. (2006) Cyanide metabolism of Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344: role of siderophores. Biochemical Society Transactions 34(Pt 1):152-5. PMID 16417508
  24. ^ Nojiri H, Maeda K, Sekiguchi H, Urata M, Shintani M, Yoshida T, Habe H, Omori T. (2002) Organization and transcriptional characterization of catechol degradation genes involved in carbazole degradation by Pseudomonas resinovorans strain CA10. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 66(4):897-901. PMID 12036072
  25. ^ Nam; et al. (2003). "A novel catabolic activity of Pseudomonas veronii in biotransformation of pentachlorophenol". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 62: 284–90. PMID 12883877. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  26. ^ Onaca; et al. (2007 Mar 9). "Degradation of alkyl methyl ketones by Pseudomonas veronii". Journal of Bacteriology. PMID 17351032. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Text "[Epub ahead of print]" ignored (help)
  27. ^ Marques S, Ramos JL. (1993) Transcriptional control of the Pseudomonas putida TOL plasmid catabolic pathways. Molecular Microbiology 9(5):923-9. PMID 7934920
  28. ^ Sepulveda-Torres; et al. (1999). "Generation and initial characterization of Pseudomonas stutzeri KC mutants with impaired ability to degrade carbon tetrachloride". Arch Microbiol. 171 (6): 424–9. PMID 10369898. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  29. ^ Anzai Y, Kim H, Park, JY, Wakabayashi H (2000). "Phylogenetic affiliation of the pseudomonads based on 16S rRNA sequence". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 50: 1563–89. PMID 10939664.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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