Silicon carbide: Difference between revisions

Silicon carbide
Identifiers
CAS Number	409-21-2;
ECHA InfoCard	100.006.357
PubChem CID	9863;
RTECS number	VW0450000;
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)	DTXSID5052751 ;
Properties
Chemical formula	SiC
Molar mass	40.0962 g/mol
Appearance	transparent to black powder depending on purity
Density	3.21 g/cm3 (all polytypes)
Melting point	2730°C (decomposes)
Solubility in water	insoluble
Solubility	insoluble in acid
Electron mobility	~900 cm2/(V*s) (all polytypes)
Refractive index (nD)	2.55 (infrared; all polytypes)
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	1 0 0
	Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa). Infobox references

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Silicon carbide (Template:Silicon Template:Carbon), also known as carborundum, is a compound of silicon and carbon with a chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Silicon carbide powder has been mass produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics which are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic applications of silicon carbide as light emitting diode and detector in early radios have been demonstrated around 1907, and nowadays SiC is widely used in high-temperature semiconductor electronics. Silicon carbide with high surface area can be produced from SiO₂ contained in plant material.

Discovery and early production

Early, non-systematic and often non-recognized syntheses of silicon carbide had been reported by Despretz (1849), Marsden (1880) and Colson (1882).^[3] Wide-scale production is credited to Edward Goodrich Acheson around 1893. He patented the method for making silicon carbide powder on February 28, 1893.^[4] Acheson also developed the electric batch furnace by which SiC is still made today and formed The Carborundum Company to manufacture bulk SiC, initially for use as an abrasive.^[5] In 1900 the company settled with the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company when a judge's decision gave "priority broadly" to its founders "for reducing ores and other substances by the incandescent method".^[6] It is said that Acheson was trying to dissolve carbon in molten corundum (alumina) and discovered the presence of hard, blue-black crystals which he believed to be a compound of carbon and corundum: hence carborundum. Or, he named the material "carborundum" by analogy to corundum, which is another very hard substance (9 on the Mohs scale).

Historically, first use of SiC was as an abrasive. They were followed by electronic applications. In the beginning of the 20th century, silicon carbide was used as a detector in the first radios, ^[7] and in 1907 Henry Joseph Round produced the first light emitting diode (LED) by applying voltage a SiC crystal and observing yellow, green and orange emission at the cathode. Those experiments were later repeated by O. V. Losev in the Soviet Union in 1923.^[8]

In nature

Moissanite single crystal (~1 mm in size)

Naturally occurring moissanite is found only in minute quantities in certain types of meteorite and in corundum deposits and kimberlite. Virtually all of the silicon carbide sold in the world, including moissanite jewels, is synthetic. Natural moissanite was first found in 1893 as a small component of the Canyon Diablo meteorite in Arizona by Dr. Ferdinand Henri Moissan, after whom the material was named in 1905.^[9] Moissan's discovery of naturally occurring SiC was initially disputed because his sample may have been contaminated by silicon carbide saw blades that were already on the market at that time.^[10]

Analysis of SiC grains found in the Murchison carbonaceous chondrite meteorite has revealed anomalous isotopic ratios of carbon and silicon, indicating an origin from outside the solar system; 99% of these SiC grains originate around carbon-rich Asymptotic giant branch stars. SiC is commonly found around these stars as deduced from their infrared spectra.^[11]

Production

Due to the rarity of natural moissanite, silicon carbide is typically man-made. Most often it is used as an abrasive, and more recently as a semiconductor and diamond simulant of gem quality. The simplest manufacturing process is to combine silica sand and carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance furnace at a high temperature, between 1600 and 2500 °C. Fine SiO₂ particles in plant material (i.e. rice husks) can be converted to SiC by heating in the excess carbon from the organic material^[12].

The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its distance from the graphite resistor heat source. Colorless, pale yellow and green crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they affect the electrical conductivity of SiC.^[13]

Pure silicon carbide can be made by the more expensive process of chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Commercial large single crystal silicon carbide is grown using a physical vapor transport method commonly known as modified Lely method.^[13] Pure silicon carbide can also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of a polymer, poly(methylsilyne), under an inert atmosphere at low temperatures. Relative to the CVD process, the pyrolysis method is advantageous because the polymer can be formed into various shapes prior to thermalization into the ceramic.^[14]

Structure and properties

Structure of major SiC polytypes.
(β)3C-SiC
4H-SiC
(α)6H-SiC

Silicon carbide exists in at least 70 crystalline forms. Alpha silicon carbide (α-SiC) is the most commonly encountered polymorph; it is formed at temperatures greater than 1700 °C and has a hexagonal crystal structure (similar to Wurtzite). The beta modification (β-SiC), with a zinc blende crystal structure (similar to diamond), is formed at temperatures below 1700 °C.^[15] Until recently, the beta form has had relatively few commercial uses, although there is now increasing interest in its use as a support for heterogeneous catalysts, owing to its higher surface area compared to the alpha form.

Properties of major SiC polytypes^[2]^[14]
Polytype	3C (β)	4H	6H (α)
Crystal structure	Zinc blende (cubic)	Hexagonal	Hexagonal
Space group	T²_d-F43m	C⁴_6v-P6₃mc	C⁴_6v-P6₃mc
Pearson symbol	cF8	hP8	hP12
Lattice constants (Å)	4.3596	3.0730; 10.053	3.0730; 15.11
Density (g/cm³)	3.21	3.21	3.21
Bandgap (eV)	2.36	3.23	3.05
Bulk modulus (GPa)	250	220	220
Thermal conductivity (W/cm K)	3.6	3.7	4.9

Pure SiC is colorless. The brown to black color of industrial product results from iron impurities. The rainbow-like lustre of the crystals is caused by a passivation layer of silicon dioxide that forms on the surface.

The high sublimation temperature of SiC (approximately 2700 °C) makes it useful for bearings and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt at any known pressure. It is also highly inert chemically. There is currently much interest in its use as a semiconductor material in electronics, where its high thermal conductivity, high electric field breakdown strength and high maximum current density make it more promising than silicon for high-powered devices.^[16] SiC also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (4.0 × 10^-6/K) and experiences no phase transitions that would cause discontinuities in thermal expansion.^[13]

Electrical conductivity

Silicon carbide is semiconductors, which can be doped n-type by nitrogen or gallium and p-type by beryllium, boron or aluminium. Metallic conductivity has been achieved by heavy doping with boron, aluminium or nitrogen. Superconductivity has been detected in 3C-SiC:Al, 3C-SiC:B and 6H-SiC:B at the same temperature of 1.5 K. ^[17] or aluminum.^[15]. A crucial difference is however observed for the magnetic field behavior between aluminum and boron doping: SiC:Al is type-II, same as Si:B. On the contrary, SiC:B is type-I. In attempt to explain this difference, it was noted that Si sites are more important than carbon sites for superconductivity in SiC. Whereas boron substitutes carbon in SiC, Al substitutes Si sites. Therefore, Al and B "see" different environment that might explain different properties of SiC:Al and SiC:B.^[18]

Uses

Abrasive and cutting tools

In the arts, silicon carbide is a popular abrasive in modern lapidary due to the durability and low cost of the material. In manufacturing, it is used for its hardness in abrasive machining processes such as grinding, honing, water-jet cutting and sandblasting. Particles of silicon carbide are laminated to paper to create sandpapers and the grip tape on skateboards.

In 1982 an exceptionally strong composite of aluminium oxide and silicon carbide whiskers has been discovered. Development of this laboratory-produced composite to a commercial product took only three years. In 1985, the first commercial cutting tools made from this alumina and silicon carbide whisker-reinforced composite were introduced by the Advanced Composite Materials Corporation (ACMC) and Greenleaf Corporation.^[19]

Structural material

Cilicon carbide is used for inner plates of ballistic vests

In the 1980s and 1990s, silicon carbide was studied on several research programs for high-temperature gas turbines in the United States, Japan, and Europe. The components were intended to replace nickel superalloy turbine blades or nozzle vanes. However, none of these projects resulted in a production quantity, mainly because of its low impact resistance and its low fracture toughness.

Like other hard ceramics (namely alumina and boron carbide), silicon carbide is used in composite armor (e.g. Chobham armor), and in ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Dragon Skin, which is produced by Pinnacle Armor, uses disks of silicon carbide.

Autombile parts

Silicon-infiltrated carbon-carbon composite is used for high performance "ceramic" brake discs as it is able to withstand extreme temperatures. The silicon reacts with the graphite in the carbon-carbon composite to become carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC). These discs are used on some road going sports cars, including the Porsche Carrera GT, the Bugatti Veyron, Bentleys, Ferraris, Lamborghinis, and some specific high performance Audis. Silicon carbide is also used in a sintered form for diesel particulate filters.

Electronic

Lightning arrestors

The earliest electrical application of SiC was in lightning arresters in electric power systems. These devices must exhibit high resistance until the voltage across them reaches a certain threshold V_T, at which point their resistance must drop to a lower level and maintain this level until the applied voltage drops below V_T.

It was recognized early on that SiC had such a voltage-dependent resistance, and so columns of SiC pellets were connected between high-voltage power lines and the earth. When a lightning strike to the line raises the line voltage sufficiently, the SiC column will conduct, allowing strike current to pass harmlessly to the earth instead of along the power line. Such SiC columns proved to conduct significantly at normal power-line operating voltages and thus had to be placed in series with a spark gap. This spark gap is ionized and rendered conductive when lightning raises the voltage of the power line conductor, thus effectively connecting the SiC column between the power conductor and the earth. Spark gaps used in lightning arrestors are unreliable, either failing to strike an arc when needed or failing to turn off afterwards, in the latter case due to material failure or contamination by dust or salt. Usages of SiC columns was originally intended as a way to eliminate the need for the spark gap in a lightning arrester. Gapped SiC lightning arresters were used as lightning-protection tool and sold under GE and Westinghouse brand names, among others. The gapped SiC arrester has been largely displaced by no-gap varistors that use columns of zinc oxide pellets.

Circuit elements

Silicon carbide is used for blue LEDs, ultrafast, high-voltage Schottky diodes, MOSFETs and high temperature thyristors for high-power switching.^[16] Currently, problems with the interface of SiC with silicon dioxide has hampered the development of SiC based power MOSFET and IGBTs. Another problem is that SiC itself breaks down at high electric fields due to the formation of extended stacking faults, but this problem may have been resolved relatively recently.^[20]

High-temperature applications

Due to its high thermal conductivity, SiC is also used as substrate for other semiconductor materials such as gallium nitride. Due to its wide band gap, SiC-based parts are capable of operating at high temperature (over 350 °C), which together with good thermal conductivity of SiC makes SiC devices good candidates for elevated temperature applications. SiC devices also possess increased tolerance to radiation damage, making SiC a desirable material for defense and aerospace applications. Gallium nitride is itself also an alternative material in many applications. Although diamond has an even higher band gap, SiC-based devices are easier to manufacture because is more convenient to grow an insulating layer of silicon dioxide on the surface of a silicon carbide wafer than it is on diamond.

Pure SiC is a poor electrical conductor. Addition of suitable dopants significantly enhances its conductivity. Typically, such material has a negative temperature coefficient between room temperature and about 900 °C, and positive temperature coefficient at higher temperatures, making it suitable material for high temperature heating elements.

Astronomy

File:SiCmirror.JPG

1.5m unpolished SiC wafer for a telescope mirror

Silicon carbide's hardness and rigidity make it a desirable mirror material for astronomical work, although its properties also make manufacturing and designing such mirrors quite difficult.

While rare on Earth, silicon carbide is remarkably common in space. It is a common form of stardust found around carbon-rich stars, and examples of this stardust have been found in pristine condition in primitive (unaltered) meteorites. The silicon carbide found in space and in meteorites is almost exclusively the beta-polymorph.

Thin filament pyrometry

Image of the test flame and glowing SiC fibers. The flame is about 7 cm tall.

Silicon carbide fibers are used to measure gas temperatures in an optical technique called thin filament pyrometry. It involves the placement of a thin filament in a hot gas stream. Radiative emissions from the filament can be correlated with filament temperature. Filaments are SiC fibers with a diameter of 15 micrometres, that is 5 times thinner than human hair. Because the fibers are so thin, they do little to disturb the flame and their temperature remains close to that of the local gas. Temperatures of about 800 - 2500 K can be measured.^[21]

Heating element

References to silicon carbide heating elements exist from the early 20th century when they were produced by Acheson's Carborundum Co. in the U.S. and EKL in Berlin. Silicon carbide offered increased operating temperatures compared with metallic heaters, although the operating temperature was limited initially by the water-cooled terminals, which brought the electric current to the silicon carbide hot zone. The terminals were not attached to the hot zone, but were held in place by weights, or springs. Operating temperature and efficiency was later increased by the use of separate low resistance silicon carbide "cold ends", usually of a larger diameter than the hot zone, but still held in place only by mechanical pressure. The development of reaction-bonding techniques led to the introduction of jointed elements. Initially, these featured larger diameter cold ends, but by the 1940s, equal diameter elements were being produced. From the 1960s onwards, one-piece elements were produced, with cold ends created by filling the pore volume with a silicon alloy. Another one-piece technique is to cut a spiral slot in a homogeneous tube where the hot section is desired. Further developments have included the production of multi-leg elements, where two or more legs are joined to a common bridge, and the production of high density, reaction-bonded elements, which provide additional resistance to oxidation and chemical attack. Silicon carbide elements are used today in the melting of non-ferrous metals and glasses, heat treatment of metals, float glass production, production of ceramics and electronics components, etc.

Nuclear fuel

Silicon carbide is often used as a layer of the tristructural-isotropic coating for the nuclear fuel elements of high temperature gas cooled reactors or very high temperature reactors such as the Pebble Bed Reactor. Silicon carbide provides the mechanical stability to the fuel and is the main diffusion barrier to the release of fission products.^[22]

Jewelry

File:MoissaniteRoundJewel.jpg

Gem-cut synthetic silicon carbide

As a Gemstone used in jewelry, silicon carbide is called Moissanite after the mineral name. Moissanite is similar to diamond in several important respects: it is transparent and hard (9-9.5) on the Mohs scale compared to 10 for diamond), with a refractive index between 2.65 and 2.69 (compared to 2.42 for diamond). Moissanite is somewhat harder than common cubic zirconia. Unlike diamond, Moissanite can be strongly birefringent. This quality is desirable in some optical applications, but not in gemstones. For this reason, Moissanite jewels are cut along the optic axis of the crystal to minimize birefringent effects. It is lighter (density 3.22 vs. 3.56), and much more resistant to heat. This results in a stone of higher lustre, sharper facets and good resilience. Loose moissanite stones may be placed directly into ring moulds; unlike diamond, which burns at 800 °C, moissanite remains undamaged by temperatures up to twice the 900 °C melting point of 18k gold. Moissanite has become popular as a diamond substitute, and may be misidentified as diamond, since its thermal conductivity is much closer to that of diamond than any other diamond substitutes. It can be distinguished from diamond by its birefringence and a very slight green or yellow fluorescence under ultraviolet light.^[23]

Steel

Silicon carbide dissolved in a basic oxygen furnace used for making steel acts as a fuel and provides energy which increases the scrap to hot metal ratio. It can also be used to raise tap temperatures and adjust the carbon content. Use of silicon carbide costs less than of ferrosilicon and carbon combination, produces cleaner steel due to low level of trace elements, it has a low gas content and it does not lower the temperature of steel. ^[24]

Catalyst support

The natural resistance to oxidation exhibited by silicon carbide, as well as the discovery of new ways to synthesize the higher surface area β-SiC form, has led to significant interest in its use as a heterogeneous catalyst support. The cubic β-SiC form has already been employed as a catalyst support for the oxidation of hydrocarbons, such as n-butane, to maleic anhydride.^[25]^[26]

References

^ P. Patnaik (2002). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070494398.
^ ^a ^b "Properties of Silicon Carbide (SiC)". Ioffe Institute. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ A. W. Weimer (1997). Carbide, nitride, and boride materials synthesis and processing. Springer. p. 115. ISBN 0412540606.
^ U.S. patent 492,767 -- Production of artificial crystalline carbonaceous material
^ "The Manufacture of Carborundum- a New Industry". 4/7/1894. Retrieved 2009-06-06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ Mabery, Charles F. (1900). "Notes, On Carborundum". Journal of the American Chemical Society. XXII (Part II). Johnson Reprint Company, via Google Books scan of Harvard University copy: 706–707. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
^ U.S. patent 837,616 Wireless telegraph system (silicon carbide detector), Henry H.C. Dunwoody, 1906
^ Hart, Jeffrey A. "A History of Electroluminescent Displays". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Henri Moissan (1904). "Nouvelles recherches sur la météorité de Cañon Diablo". Comptes rendus. 139: 773–786.
^ Di Pierro S., Gnos E., Grobety B.H., Armbruster T., Bernasconi S.M., and Ulmer P. (2003). "Rock-forming moissanite (natural α-silicon carbide)". American Mineralogist. 88: 1817–1821.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ The Astrophysical Nature of Silicon Carbide, retrieved 2009-06-06
^ A.S. Vlasov (1991). "Refractories and Industrial Ceramics". 32: 1083. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Gary Lynn Harris (1995). Properties of silicon carbide. IET. p. 19; 170-180. ISBN 0852968701.
^ ^a ^b Yoon-Soo Park, Willardson, Eicke R Weber (1998). SiC materials and devices. Academic Press. pp. 20–60. ISBN 0127521607.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "prop" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ ^a ^b T. Muranaka; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity in carrier-doped silicon carbide" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044204. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044204. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ ^a ^b Bhatnagar, M. (1993). "Comparison of 6H-SiC, 3C-SiC, and Si for power devices" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 40 (3): 645–655. doi:10.1109/16.199372. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ M. Kriener; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity in heavily boron-doped silicon carbide" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044205. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044205. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ Y. Yanase and N. Yorozu (2008). "Superconductivity in compensated and uncompensated semiconductors" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044201. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044201.
^ Narottam P. Bansal (2005). Handbook of ceramic composites. Springer. p. 312. ISBN 1402081332.
^ Madar, Roland (2004-08-26). "Materials science: Silicon carbide in contention". Nature. 430 (430): 974–975. doi:10.1038/430974a. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
^ "Thin-Filament Pyrometry Developed for Measuring Temperatures in Flames". NASA. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ E. López-Honorato; et al. (2009). "TRISO coated fuel particles with enhanced SiC properties". Journal of Nuclear Materials. 392: 219. doi:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.03.013. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
^ M. O'Donoghue (2006). Gems. Elsevier. p. 89. ISBN 0-75-065856-8.
^ "Silicon carbide (steel industry)". Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Howard F. Rase (2000). Handbook of commercial catalysts: heterogeneous catalysts. CRC Press. p. 258. ISBN 0849394171.
^ "High surface area silicon carbide from rice husk: A support material for catalysts". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links

A Brief History of Silicon Carbide Dr J F Kelly, University of London
Material Safety Data Sheet for Silicon Carbide
Moissanite on Mindat.org

[1] P. Patnaik (2002). Handbook of Inorganic Chemicals. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070494398.

[ioffe-2] "Properties of Silicon Carbide (SiC)". Ioffe Institute. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[3] A. W. Weimer (1997). Carbide, nitride, and boride materials synthesis and processing. Springer. p. 115. ISBN 0412540606.

[4] U.S. patent 492,767 -- Production of artificial crystalline carbonaceous material

[5] "The Manufacture of Carborundum- a New Industry". 4/7/1894. Retrieved 2009-06-06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)

[6] Mabery, Charles F. (1900). "Notes, On Carborundum". Journal of the American Chemical Society. XXII (Part II). Johnson Reprint Company, via Google Books scan of Harvard University copy: 706–707. Retrieved 2007-10-28.

[7] U.S. patent 837,616 Wireless telegraph system (silicon carbide detector), Henry H.C. Dunwoody, 1906

[ultraviolet-8] Hart, Jeffrey A. "A History of Electroluminescent Displays". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

[9] Henri Moissan (1904). "Nouvelles recherches sur la météorité de Cañon Diablo". Comptes rendus. 139: 773–786.

[pierro-10] Di Pierro S., Gnos E., Grobety B.H., Armbruster T., Bernasconi S.M., and Ulmer P. (2003). "Rock-forming moissanite (natural α-silicon carbide)". American Mineralogist. 88: 1817–1821.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[11] The Astrophysical Nature of Silicon Carbide, retrieved 2009-06-06

[12] A.S. Vlasov (1991). "Refractories and Industrial Ceramics". 32: 1083. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[growth-13] Gary Lynn Harris (1995). Properties of silicon carbide. IET. p. 19; 170-180. ISBN 0852968701.

[prop-14] Yoon-Soo Park, Willardson, Eicke R Weber (1998). SiC materials and devices. Academic Press. pp. 20–60. ISBN 0127521607.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "prop" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).

[muranaka-15] T. Muranaka; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity in carrier-doped silicon carbide" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044204. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044204. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[baliga-16] Bhatnagar, M. (1993). "Comparison of 6H-SiC, 3C-SiC, and Si for power devices" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices. 40 (3): 645–655. doi:10.1109/16.199372. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

[kriener-17] M. Kriener; et al. (2008). "Superconductivity in heavily boron-doped silicon carbide" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044205. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044205. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[18] Y. Yanase and N. Yorozu (2008). "Superconductivity in compensated and uncompensated semiconductors" (PDF). Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater. 9: 044201. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/9/4/044201.

[19] Narottam P. Bansal (2005). Handbook of ceramic composites. Springer. p. 312. ISBN 1402081332.

[20] Madar, Roland (2004-08-26). "Materials science: Silicon carbide in contention". Nature. 430 (430): 974–975. doi:10.1038/430974a. Retrieved 2008-06-06.

[21] "Thin-Filament Pyrometry Developed for Measuring Temperatures in Flames". NASA. Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[22] E. López-Honorato; et al. (2009). "TRISO coated fuel particles with enhanced SiC properties". Journal of Nuclear Materials. 392: 219. doi:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.03.013. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

[don-23] M. O'Donoghue (2006). Gems. Elsevier. p. 89. ISBN 0-75-065856-8.

[24] "Silicon carbide (steel industry)". Retrieved 2009-06-06.

[25] Howard F. Rase (2000). Handbook of commercial catalysts: heterogeneous catalysts. CRC Press. p. 258. ISBN 0849394171.

[26] "High surface area silicon carbide from rice husk: A support material for catalysts". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

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v t e Silicon compounds
Si(II)	SiO SiS
Si(III)	Si₂H₆ Si₂Cl₆
Si(IV)	SiBr₄ SiC SiCl₄ SiF₄ SiH₄ SiI₄ SiAu₄ SiO₂ SiS₂ Si₃N₄ Si(N₃)₄ Si₂N₂O Si₂Cl₆O SiF₃Cl